GIFT  OF 


* 


HISTORY 


IGNAL  SERVICE 


WITH    CATALOGUE    OK 


PUBLICATIONS,  INSTRUMENTS  AND  STATIONS. 


I'KEl'AKF.I)    UNDER    THE    DIRECTION    OF 

BRIG.  &  BVT.  MAJ.   GEN'L  W.   B.   HAZEN. 

CHIEF  STUNAL  OFFICER  OF  THE  AIOIY. 


WASHINGTON   CITY. 

1884. 


HISTORY 


SIGNAL  SERVICE 


PUBLICATIONS,  INSTRUMENTS  AND  STATIONS. 


WASHINGTON  CITY. 

1884. 


4 


SIGNAL  SERVICE,  ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


The  Signal  Service  of  the  Army  of  the  United  States,  as  at  present  constituted, 
is  an  organization  upon  which  is  devolved  the  two-fold  duty  (i)  of  providing  for  the 
Army  an  efficient  corps  charged  with  the  work  of  opening  and  maintaining  commu- 
nication, at  the  front,  in  time  of  war,  and  (2)  of  noting  the  development  and  pro- 
gress of  storms  and  other  meteorological  phenomena  and  reporting  the  same  to  the 
public  with  predictions  of  probable  future  atmospheric  conditions. 

The  field-telegraph  trains  of  the  Signal  Service  are  organized  for  use  with  armies. 
They  are  managed  by  soldiers  who  are  drilled  to  march  with,  manoeuvre,  work,  and 
protect  them.  The  train  carries  light  or  field-telegraph  lines,  which  can  be  very 
quickly  erected  or  run  out  at  the  rate  of  two  or  three  miles  per  hour.  They  can  be 
put  in  use  for  any  distance,  and  be  as  rapidly  taken  down,  repacked,  and  marched 
off  with  the  detachment  to  be  used  elsewhere. 

The  Signal  Service  also  transmits  intelligence  in  reference  to  storms  or  approach- 
ing weather  changes  by  the  display  of  warning-signals,  and  by  reports  posted  in  the 
different  cities  and  ports  of  the  United  States.  Maps  showing  the  state  of  the 
weather  over  the  United  States  are  exhibited  at  boards  of  trade,  chambers  of  com- 
merce, and  other  places  of  public  resort.  Bulletins  of  meteorological  data  for  all 
the  stations  are  also  prominently  displayed,  and  distributed,  without  expense,  to 
the  leading  newspapers. 

Signal  stations  are  also  established  in  connection  with  the  life-saving  stations. 
These  stations  are  connected  by  telegraph,  and  the  former,  in  addition  to  displaying 
storm-warning  signals  and  making  the  usual  meteorological  reports,  make  special 
reports  upon  the  temperature  of  the  water,  tempests  at  sea,  the  sea-swells,  etc. 
They  also  summon  assistance  to  vessels  in  distress,  from  the  nearest  life-saving  sta- 
tions, or  from  the  nearest  port. 

Stations  for  river  reports,  to  give  notice  of  the  conditions  of  the  rivers  affecting 
navigation  and  floods,  are  also  established  on  the  principal  interior  rivers  and  their 
tributaries. 

MILITARY    ORGANIZATION. 

An  economic  feature  of  the  Weather  Bureau  is  that  it  is  a  military  service.  All  its 
observational  work  is  done  by  officers  and  enlisted  men  of  the  Army,  and  all  its  offi- 
cial publications  are  prepared  under  authority,  and  with  the  regularity  and  dispatch 
to  be  had  only  under  military  discipline.  The  military  relations  of  the  Signal  Ser- 
vice have  been  found  by  experience  to  give  it  great  advantages  in  extending  its  net- 
work of  stations  over  the  sparsely  populated  territories  of  the  country,  from  which 
many  of  the  most  indispensable  meteorological  reports  are  obtained.  The  observ- 
ers of  the  Signal  Corps  are  trained  not  only  in  the  art  and  practice  of  military  field- 
signalling,  but  in  the  ordinary  army  drill  and  rules  and  habits  of  discipline ;  they 
constitute  a  part  of  the  regular  military  establishment  of  the  nation,  always  ready 
for  active  service.  Occupied  in  time  of  peace  with  scientific  work  of  acknowledged 
value,  the  cost  of  their  maintenance  is  but  a  small  additional  burden  upon  the  coun- 
try, fully  requited  by  their  meteorological  services  to  it.  Experience  has  shown  that 
arduous  meteorological  labors  such  as  they  perform  have  not  been  secured  from 
any  civil  corps.  As  the  Signal  Service  observers  must  report  several  times  a  day  to 


o  A 


4  HISTORY   OF  SIGNAL   SERVICE. 

the  Washington  office,  eacn  regular  report-serves  in  effect  as  a  telegraphic  roll-call 
of  all  the  stations  spread  over  the  country  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and  from 
the  lakes  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  insuring  promptitude,  vigilance,  and  steadiness  in 
the  entire  Signal  Corps. 

The  officers  and  men  of  the  Signal  Service  are  instructed  for  the  different 
branches  of  the  service  at  Fort  Myer,  (formerly  Fort  Whipple)  Virginia,  and  at  the 
central  office  in  Washington  City.  They  are  taught  signalling  in  all  its  branches, 
telegraphy,  the  use  of  the  various  meteorological  instruments,  the  modes  of  observ- 
ing, and  the  form  and  duties  required  at  stations  of  observation  ;  the  force  is  also 
drilled  with  arms,  with  the  field-telegraph  train,  the  construction  of  permanent  tele- 
graph lines,  and  in  the  usual  duties  of  soldiers.  For  the  duties  of  the  observation 
of  storms  and  for  the  display  of  warning  signals,  all  stations  communicate  directly 
with  the  central  office  in  Washington,  over  telegraphic  circuits  arranged  with  the 
different  telegraphic  companies,  and  connecting  with  the  office  at  fixed  hours  each 
day  and  night. 

The  net-work  of  the  Signal-Service  stations  now  extends  over  the  continent  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  coasts,  and  the  intervening  territory  from  the  Gulf  (in- 
cluding the  West  Indies)  to  the  Canadian  frontier,  and  is  in  receipt,  by  comity  of 
exchange,  of  daily  telegraphic  intelligence  of  the  weather  from  the  Canadian  Do- 
minion and  its  outlying  posts.  The  office  work  is  still  in  need  of  more  stations  in 
the  interior  of  the  country  and  the  Northwest  Territory  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada; 
provision  will  ere  long  be  made  for  supplying  them,  when  the  new  transcontinental 
telegraph-line  is  extended  from  Manitoba  to  British  Columbia.  These  reports  from 
one  hundred  and  forty-seven  stations  of  observation  are  notunfrequently  concentrated 
at  the  central  office  in  the  space  of  forty  minutes.  The  stations  at  which  cautionary 
signals  are  displayed  are  equipped  with  flags,  lanterns,  &c.,  for  exhibiting  the 
cautionary  day  or  night  signals,  and  also  for  communicating  with  vessels  of  any 
nationality. 

The  meteorological  division  of  the  United  States  Signal  Service  was  established 
in  1870,  and  was  an  additional  duty  imposed  upon  it.  The  progress  of  modern  in- 
quiry into  the  changes  taking  place  in  the  weather,  and  especially  into  the  phenomena 
of  storms,  had  for  many  years  previous  strengthened  the  conviction  that  they  are 
not  capricious,  but  follow  certain  laws.  To  provide,  therefore,  for  taking  meteor- 
ological observations,  with  a  view  to  "giving  notice  by  telegraph  and  signals  of 
the  approach  and  force  of  storms,"  was  the  end  originally  contemplated  by  the 
joint  resolution  of  Congress,  which  passed  February  Qth,  1870,  authorizing  the 
Secretary  of  War  to  carry  this  scheme  into  effect.  The  organization  of  a  meteor- 
ological bureau  adequate  to  the  investigation  of  American  storms,  and  to  their  pre- 
announcernent  along  the  northern  lakes  and  the  sea-coast,  was,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  War  Department,  immediately  intrusted  to  the  Chief  Signal  Officer  of  the 
Army,  Brigadier-General  Albert  J.  Myer  ;  and  the  division  thus  created  in  his  office 
was  designated  as  the  "Division  of  Telegrams  and  Reports  for  the  Benefit  of  Com- 
merce." ,» 

This   was  the   first  legislation  of  the   United   States  Government  inaugurating  a 
national  weather  service.       The   peculiar  geographical    extension   of    the   country, 
stretching  over  fifty-seven  degrees  of  longitude  and  twenty-two  of  latitude,  afforded 
exceptional  advantages  for  investigating  and  predicting  the  storms  which  cross  its 
broad  area  ;  for  experience  and  observation  had  shown  that  they  generally  move 
from  west  to  east,  and  not  unfrequently  along  the  meridians.     But  the  vast  extent 
of  the  storm-field,   coupled  with  the   fact  that  the   "law  of  storms,"  was  then  but 
roughly  outlined,  made  the  execution  of  this  task  a  very  difficult  and  tedious  work 
calling  for  great  caution  and  the  most  accurate  observations.    Espy,  Redfield,  Loomis 
and  Ferrel,  in  the   United   States,  as  well  as  many  distinguished  meteorologists 


HISTORY  OF   SIGNAL   SERVICE. 


_  X 

SOUTH 

Horizontal  movements  of  air  around  centre 
of  cyclone   in  northern   hemisphere.      Large 


abroad,  had  investigated  the  general  laws  of  storms,  but  their  demonstration  on 
the  wide  continental  field  of  America,  as  well  as  the  discovery  of  many  details 
affecting  their  practical  application  to  weather  prediction,  awaited  further,  more 
extensive,  and  more  exact  research. 

Early  developments, — At  first  the   number  of  stations  and  the  area  covered  by  the 
predictions  were  limited.     But,  when  once  the  NORTH 

fact  had  been  established  that  at  any  hour  of 
the  day  or  night,  the  central  office  could 
almost  instantly  call  for  reports  from  all  parts 
of  the  country,  and  receive  them  from  all  its 
stations,  taken  at  the  same  moment  of  time, 
and  revealing  the  actual  status  of  the  atmos- 
phere over  its  whole  field  of  inquiry,  the  sense 
of  security  in  its  scientific  processes,  and  the 
confidence  that  the  results  were  built  upon 
"the  solid  ground  of  nature,"  gave  it  a  pow- 
erful foward  impulse. 

The  method  of  simultaneous  reports,  it 
was  felt,  was  a  sure  road  to  the  desired  goal. 
In  a  short  time  additional  stations  were  es- 
tablished within  the  United  States,  making 
sixty-six  in  all.  A  comparison  of  the  tri- 

daily    forecasts,    or    "probabilities,"   as   they     arrow   shows  path  of  storm:  smaller  arrows 
,     ,        .  ,      ,  ...  f          show  the  course   of  the   winds   increasing   in 

were  styled,  with  the  weather-conditions    fol-     velocity  as  they  approach  the  centre. 

lowing  and  reported  as  actually  observed  as  far  as  verified,  from  November  i,  1871,  to 
October  i,  1872,  gave  an  average  of  verification  of  76.8  per  cent.;  and  during  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1872,  354  cautionary  signals  were  issued,  with  an  estimated  percen- 
tage of  correctness  amounting  to  70.  These  results  also  afforded  the  most  com- 
plete demonstration  of  the  laws  of  storms  and  the  movement  of  cyclones  that  had 
ever  been  obtained  in  any  country. 

By  act  of  Congress,  approved  June  10,  1872,  the  Signal  Service  was  charged  with 
the  duty  of  providing  such  stations,  signals,  and  reports  as  might  be  found  neces- 
sary for  extending  its  research  in  the  interest  of  agriciilture*  The  agricultural 
societies  over  the  land  earnestly  entered  into  and  co-operated  with  the  service  in 
this  new  develpment  of  its  inquiries  and  reports.  Eighty-one  such  societies, 
thirty-eight  boards  of  trade  or  chambers  of  commerce,  numerous  scientific  institu- 
tions, colleges,  and  leading  professional  men  put  themselves  in  communication 
with  the  Chief  Signal  Officer,  with  a  view  to  facilitate  this  branch  of  this  work.  The 
scientific  societies  at  home  and  abroad  began  to  take  the  liveliest  interest  in  the 
general  labors  of  the  service,  and  to  express  the  highest  approval  of  the  results 
attained.  And,  beyond  the  limits  of  the  United  States,  numerous  marine  observa- 
tions, which  General  Myer  had  previously  desired,  with  the  purpose  of  studying  the 
atmosphere  as  a  unit  both  on  the  ocean  and  the  land,  were  forwarded  regularly  to 
the  central  office. 

The  expansion  of  the  work,  in  1873,  under  the  stimulus  of  a  world-wide  favorable 
notice,  was  even  more  rapid  than  in  the  previous  year.  On  March  3d,  Congress 
authorized  the  establishment  of  Signal  Service  stations  at  the  light-house  and  life- 
saving  stations  on  the  lakes  and  sea-coast,  and  made  provision  for  connecting  the 
same  with  telegraph-lines  or  cables  "to  be  constructed,  maintained,  and  worked 
under  the  direction  of  the  Chief  Signal  Officer  of  the  Army,  or  the  Secretary  of 
War,  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury."  Early  in  this  year  the  office  also  began 
the  regular  publication  of  a  "Monthly  Weather  Review,"  summarizing  in  a  popular 
way  all  its  data  and  showing  the  results  of  its  investigations,  as  well  as  presenting 


6  HISTORY  OF   SIGNAL   SERVICE. 

these  in  graphic  weather-charts  adapted  to  the  comprehension  of  communities  it 
was  destined  to  reach.  The  library  of  the  signal  office  was  increased  to  some 
2,500  volumes  bearing  on  the  special  scientific  duties  imposed  upon  it.  The  tests  of 
meteorological  instruments  previously  instituted  enabled  it  to  greatly  improve  and 
simplify  its  instrumental  apparatus.  The  percentage  of  verification  of  its  predic- 
dictions  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1873,  was,  for  each  geographical  division,  as 
follows  : 

New  England  81.50 

Middle  states 81.17 

South  Atlantic  ..,    79.92 

Lower  lakes  78.90 

Upper  lakes 75.25 

Eastern  Gulf 77. 16 

Western  Gulf  74-4O 

Northwest  74.00 

It  was  in  September  of  this  year  also  that,  at  the  proposal  of  the  Chief  Signal 
Officer  to  the  International  Congress  of  Meteorologists,  convened  at  Vienna,  the  sys- 
tem of  world-wide  co-operative  simultaneous  weather  observations,  since  then  so 
extensively  developed,  was  inaugurated,  and  began  to  contribute  its  data  to  the  sig- 
nal office  records.  Thus,  in  his  report  for  1873,  tne  Chief  Signal  Officer  was  able  to 
say  of  the  simultaneous  international  observations:  "Their  utility  is  no  longer 
questioned,  and  effort  at  home  and  abroad  turns  only  toward  their  development." 
The  service  was  now  no  longer  an  experiment,  but  an  assured  success. 

In  addition  to  the  regular  force  of  military  observers,  there  was  transferred  to  the 
Signal  Service  on  February  2,  1874,  at  the  instance  of  Professor  Joseph  Henry, 
Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  the  entire  body  of  Smithsonian  weather 
observers  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  This  voluntary  civilian  force  continues 
to  the  present  day  to  contribute  its  scientific  labors  in  behalf  of  the  Signal  Ser- 
vice researches  in  the  domain  of  continental  meteorology  and  climatology.  The 
voluntary  observers,  thus  co-operating  with  General  Myer,  with  others  who  have 
embarked  in  the  work  since  1874,  now  number  three  hundred.  Since  June  19, 
1874,  the  reports  from  the  Army  post  surgeons  have  been  ordered  by  the  Surgeon  Gen- 
eral, United  States  Army,  to  be  sent  to  the  Chief  Signal  Officer.  At  present  they 
number  forty-nine.  Many  of  them  have  acquired  great  exactness  and  experience  in 
instrumental  observations,  and  noting  and  recording  physical  phenomena,  so  that 
their  monthly  reports  to  the  Chief  Signal  Officer  alone  make  a  rich  repository  of 
American  climatology.  This  voluntary  corps  is  receiving  constant  additions,  and 
inducements  are  held  out  by  the  service  to  competent  civilians,  especially  in  the 
sparsely  settled  and  frontier  districts,  to  join  in  its  investigations. 

SIMULTANEOUS    WEATHER    OBSERVATIONS. 

In  organizing  this  service  the  first  problem  that  presented  itself  was  to  devise  a 
system  of  observations  which  would,  when  mapped  accurately,  represent  the  aerial 
phenomena  at  the  same  instant  of  time,  and  in  their  a&ial  relations  to  each  other, 
and  thus  enable  the  investigator  to  discover  the  laws  of  storms  and  their  rates  of 
movement  over  the  earth's  surface.  "The  history  of  science,"  says  one  of  its  fore- 
most representatives,  "proves  that  unconnected,  unsystematic,  inaccurate  observa- 
tions are  worth  nothing."  Certainly  in  the  domain  of  meteorology,  no  solid  foun- 
dation for  the  science  of  the  weather  could  have  been  laid  in  1870  upon  any  of  the 
then  existing  observational  systems.  The  European  weather  stations,  at  that  date, 
and  long  after,  were  engaged  in  making  non-simultaneous  reports  ;  no  two  of  them, 
unless  they  happened  to  be  on  the  same  meridian,  read  off  their  instruments  at  the 
same  time. 


HISTORY    OF   SIGNAL   SERVICE.  7 

The  perfectly  simple  scheme  of  simultaneous  observations  aimed  at  the  rescue  of 
weather  research  from  the  chaos  in  which  for  ages  it  had  lain.  Its  cardinal  princi- 
ple of  observation  is  to  gain  frequent  views  of  the  atmospheric  condition  and  move- 
ments over  the  country  as  they  actually  are,  and  as  th^y  would  be  seen,  could  they, 
so  to  speak,  be  photographed.  In  no  other  way  can  the  bearings  of  the  various 
storm-winds  and  their  connected  phenomena  be  detected,  or  the  rates  of  their  trans- 
ition determined.  All  the  predictions  of  the  signal  office,  therefore,  have  from  its 
beginning  until  now,  been  from  reports  taken  simultaneously. 

Current  daily  work, — The  operations  of  the  meteorological  division  of  the  Signal 
Service,  popularly  known  as  the  "  Weather  Bureau,"  have  been,  every  year  since  its 
creation,  somewhat  enlarged  by  Congress,  until  they  have  become  numerous  and 
varied.  The  first  to  be  specially  mentioned  is  the  daily  work  of  weather  prediction, 
including  storm  warnings.  These  are  issued  from  the  Office  of  the  Chief  Signal 
Officer  three  times  every  day,  under  the  titles  of  "  Indications  "  and  "  Cautionary  Sig- 
nals," and  are  based  upon  three  series  of  simultaneous  weather  reports  telegraphed 
to  Washington  from  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada;  also  at  intermedi- 
ate hours  if  necessary,  based  upon  special  reports,  The  tri-daily  telegraphic  obser- 
vations are  taken  simultaneously  at  all  stations  at  7.00  a.  m.,  3.00  p.  m.,  and  n.oo 
p.  m.,  Washington  time,  and  at  once  put  upon  the  wires;  those  taken  at  n.oo  a.  m. 
and  7.00  p.  m.,  Washington  time,  are  not  telegraphed  unless  specially  called  for. 
The  number  of  stations  from  which  tri-daily  telegraphic  reports  are  received  at  the 
central  office  is  147.  This  number  includes  12  stations  belonging  to  the  weather 
service  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  which,  by  comity  of  exchange,  send  daily  reports 
to  the  Chief  Signal  Officer.  The 
total  number  from  which  such  re- 
ports are  received  daily  is  157; 
but,  including  those  sent  by  mail 
it  is  202 ;  while  the  total  of  re- 
porting stations  within  the  Uni-| 
ted  States  territory,  including  the 
special  printing,  display,  special 
river,  cotton-region  and  sunset  sta-l 
tions,  on  the  3Oth  of  June,  1884, 
was  464.  The  vertical  range  of  the 
observations  extends  from  sea-level 
to  the  summits  of  Mount  Washing- 
ton (6,286  feet)  and  Pike's  Peak 
(14,151  feet).  The  observations  in- 
clude the  readings  of  the  barometer 
and  dry-bulb  and  wet-bulb  ther- 
mometers ;  the  direction  and  veloc- 
ity of  the  wind ;  the  amount  of  rain 
or  snow  fallen  since  last  report ; 
the  kind,  amount,  velocity  and  direc- 
tion of  movement  of  clouds;  auro- 
ras, haze,  fog,  smokiness,  frost,  etc., 
and  to  these  data  the  river  stations 
add  the  readings  of  the  river-gauge, 
and  the  sea-coast  stations  the  direc- 
tion and  character  of  the  ocean- Signal  Service  station  on  the  summit  of  Mount  Washington, 
swell.  The  maximum  and  minimum  temperatures  in  the  past  twenty-four  hours  are 
also  given. 

Having  taken   their   instrumental  and  other  observations  at  either  of  the  hours 


8  HISTORY   OF   SIGNAL  SERVICE. 

specified,  the  observers  prepare  their  reports  in  cipher^  by  which  expense  for  the 
telegrams  and  time  in  their  transmission  are  saved,  as  well  as  greater  accuracy 
secured. 

These  cipher  telegrams  condensed  by  means  of  the  cipher  code  in  five  to  ten 
words  for  each  report,  as  soon  as  received  in  the  Washington  office,  are  translated 
from  cipher  and  entered  on  the  bulletin  blanks  and  at  the  same  time  in  their  proper 
places  on  the  weather  maps.  This  is  done  under  the  supervision  of  the  assistant 
charged  with  the  preparation  of  the  weather  predictions  and  the  announcement  of 
the  storm-warnings. 

It  was  not  until  November  4,  1870,  that  the  Chief  Signal  Officer  was  able  to  issue 
weather  bulletins.  On  that  day,  at  twenty-four  stations  in  the  United  States  sys- 
tematized simultaneous  observations  of  .  the  weather  by  trained  Signal  Service 
observers  were  first  taken  and  telegraphed  to  the  central  office  at  Washington. 
The  same  day  the  bulletins  made  up  from  these  reports  were  prepared  and  tele- 
graphed by  the  Chief  Signal  Officer  to  more  than  twenty  cities.  The  first  storm- 
warning  was  bulletined  along  the  lakes  a  week  later,  for  the  benefit  of  the  large 
commercial  and  marine  interests  exposed  to  the  furious  gales  which  sweep  espe- 
cially in  autumn,  over  their  waters.  These  tentative  attempts  to  introduce  the  novel 
system  of  practical  weather  telegraphy  were  vigorously  followed  up,  and  the  success 
realized  so  early  in  the  operations  of  the  service  was  as  gratifying  to  the  public  as 
to  the  office  itself.  This  success  was  due  in  a  large  measure  to  the  system  of  obser- 
vation and  reports  being  in  the  strictest  sense  simultaneous. 


WEATHER-MAPS. 

To  arrive  at  any  result  it  was  necessary  to  chart  weather  maps  from  the  reports 
thus  received  by  telegraph.  The  Signal  Service  tri-daily  weather-map  is  a  map  of 
the  United  States  on  which  all  the  Signal  Service  stations  are  entered  in  their 
appropriate  geographical  places,  and  having  annexed  to  each  station  the  figures 
expressing  the  readings  of  the  barometer  and  thermometer,  the  velocity  of  the  wind 
the  amount  of  rainfall  within  the  previous  eight  hours,  &c. ;  and  also  symbols  indi- 
cating the  direction  of  the  wind,  and  the  form  and  amount  of  cloud,  at  the  given 
time  of  observation.  The  observations  taken  at  each  station  are  all  put  down  on 
the  map,  and  the  relations  between  them  are  thus  made  sensible  to  the  eye  of  the 
signal  officer,  by  the  figures  and  symbols,  and  also  by  lines  drawn  to  group  the  geo- 
graphical areas  over  which  like,  conditions  prevail.  The  weather  map  is,  therefore, 
to  the  meteorologist,  an  indispensable  means  of  obtaining  a  survey,  and  prosecut- 
ing a  careful  and  connected  study  of  the  phenomena  he  seeks  to  understand. 

On  page  15  will  be  found  a  telegraphic  weather  map,  which  illustrates  the  method 
of  representing,  graphically,  the  atmospheric  conditions  over  the  entire  country. 

The  tri-daily  weather  map,  prepared  for  use  at  the  central  offices,  resembles  this, 
in  general,  but  is  very  much  larger  and  contains  more  data. 

Synoptic  Weather-Map. — By  preparing  a  graphic  weather-map  embodying  the  tele- 
graphic data  furnished  to  the  Chief  Signal  Officer  every  eight  hours  in  the  day,  the 
officer  charged  with  formulating  the  storm  predictions,  gains  and  retains  a  clear 
idea  and  mental  image  of  the  atmosphere.  A  great  soldier  has  said:  "  There  is 
nothing  ideal  in  war,"  and  it  may  be  said  with  equal  force,  there  is  no  work  which 
for  its  intelligent  execution  demands  greater  precision  of  method,  more  copious  and 
circumstantial  details,  and  closer  attention  to  the  developments  of  the  hour,  than 
weather  forecasting  over  a  continent.  The  weather-map  brings  all  these  minutia; 
within  view,  and  makes  the  meteorologist  master  of  the  whole  mass  of  observations, 
as  hours  consumed  in  the  study  of  numerical  data  could  not  do.  Every  weather-map 
is  therefore,  a  generalization  in  itself,  as  well  as  record  of  the  data.  A  series  of 


HISTORY   OF   SIGNAL   SERVICE.  9 

weather  maps  is  a  history  of  the  ebb  and  flow,  the  fluctuations  and  tossings  of  the 
aerial  ocean,  and  of  the  more  subtile  yet  influential  processes  concerned  in  produc- 
ing the  weather  and  determining  the  climate  of  the  country. 

PREPARATION    OF  THE  "SYNOPSIS  AND  INDICATIONS"  AND  "SPECIAL  BULLETINS." 

From  reading  in  the  morning  newspapers  the  "  Synopsis  and  Indications"  for  the 
day,  no  one  not  initiated  in  the  method  of  preparing  them  would  suspect  the  mag- 
nitude of  the  work  involved  in  their  preparation.  The  study  pre-requisite  for  each 
of  the  tri-daily  press  reports  issued  includes  the  draughting  of  seven  graphic  charts, 
exhibiting  the  data  furnished  by  the  simultaneous  reports  telegraphed  from  all  the 
stations.  These  charts  are  :  (a)  A  chart  of  barometric  pressures,  temperature,  winds 
(direction  and  velocity),  state  of  the  weather,  and  the  kind  and  amount  of  precipi- 
tation at  each  station.  The  isobars,  (or  line  connecting  stations  where  the  ba- 
rometric pressure,  reduced  to  sea-level,  is  the  same)  are  then  drawn  for  every 
tenth  of  an  inch,  as  also  are  isothermal  lines  for  every  10°  of  temperature ;  while 
wind-directions  are  marked  by  arrows  and  their  hourly  velocities  by  numbers,  (b)  A 
chart  of  dew-points  at  all  stations.  There  is  also  entered  for  each  station  the 
depression  of  the  dew-point  below  the  temperature  of  the  air.  On  this  are  traced 
lines  showing  each  five  degrees  of  equal  depression  of  the  dew-point.  A  line  is 
also  drawn  to  show  the  dew-point  of  32°  Fahr.  (c)  A  chart  of  the  various  cloud-con- 
ditions prevailing  at  the  time  over  the  United  States,  with  the  "weather"  at  each 
station,  depicted  by  symbols  ;  also  once  daily,  the  minimum  and  maximum  temper- 
atures. The  cloud-areas — each  form  of  cloud  represented  by  a  different  symbol — are 
outlined  and  each  one  is  distinguished.  The  appearance  of  the  western  sky  at  each 
station,  as  observed  at  sunset,  which  affords  a  strong  indication  of  the  weather  to  be 
anticipated  for  the  next  twenty-four  hours,  is  also  marked  on  this  chart,  (d]  A  chart 
of  the  normal  barometric  pressures,  and  of  variation  of  the  actual  (corrected  for  tem- 
peraiure  and  instrumental  error)  from  the  normal  pressures.  The  deviation  or 
"departures"  of  the  actual  pressures  from  those  which  generally  prevail  are  entered 
and  exhibited  on  the  map  by  appropriate  lines,  (e)  A  chart  of  actual  changes  of 
pressure  occurring,  showing  separately  the  fluctuations  of  the  atmosphere  during 
the  previous  eight  and  twenty-four  hours.  (/)  A  chart  of  normal  temperatures  and 
of  variations  of  the  actual  temperatures  from  the  normal  temperatures.  The  devia- 
tions or  "departures"  of  the  actual  temperatures  from  those  which  generally  prevail 
are  entered  and  exhibited  on  the  map  by  appropriate  lines,  (g)  A  chart  of  actual 
changes  of  temperature  in  previous  eight  and  twenty-four  hours.  All  these  charts, 
each  covering  the  whole  of  the  country,  must  be  made  out,  and  the  mass  of  data  they 
embody  sifted  and  analyzed,  preliminary  to  the  preparation  of  every  one  of  the  tri- 
daily  bulletins  issued  from  the  central  office.  The  charts  have  all  to  be  draughted 
in  about  an  hour  or  an  hour  and  a  half  ;  but  they  are  inter-corrective,  each  chart 
serving  as  a  check  on  the  others. 

Armed  with  this  charted  material,  the  officer  preparing  the  predictions  proceeds 
first  to  compile  the  "Synopsis,"  and  then  to  deduce  the  "  Indications,"  and  issue 
the  necessary  storm  warnings,  The  "Synopsis"  "  Indications"  and  cautionary  signals 
constitute  the  "  Press-report  "  which,  when  finished,  is  telegraphed  direct  from  the 
Office  of  the  Chief  Signal  Officer  to  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  average  time 
elapsing  between  the  simultaneous  reading  of  the  instruments  at  the  separate  sta- 
tions scattered  over  the  United  States,  and  the  issue  of  the  "Synopsis"  and  "  Indi- 
cations" based  on  these  readings,  has  been  calculated  at  one  hour  and  forty  minutes. 

Verifications  of  Predictions. — An  analysis  of  the  predictions  made  for  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1883,  and  a  comparison  with  the  weather  conditions  which  actually  occurred 
within  the  twenty-four  hours  next  ensuing,  give  the  following  percentages  of  verifi- 
cations : 


10 


HISTORY   OF   SIGNAL   SERVICE. 


Percentage  of  verifications  for  the  year  (forecasts  of  barometric  pressures,  tem- 
peratures, wind  direction,  and  state  of  weather),  88.0. 

Percentage  of  verifications  for  the  year  (forecasts  of  the  state  of  the  weather 
only),  89.8. 

These  percentages  of  accuracy  refer  to  predictions  of  barometric,  thermometric, 
wind-direction,  and  general  weather  changes.  The  average  percentage  of  accuracy 
of  the  forecasts  of  the  weather  alone  (including  the  state  of  the  skies,  whether  clear, 
fair,  or  cloudy,  and  whether  with  or  without  rain)  for  all  of  the  different  districts  is 
89.8.  The  percentage  for  the  Pacific  coast  region  for  "weather"  only  is  90.5.  In 
other  words,  out  of  a  hundred  pre-announcements  of  the  single  element,  "weather," 
for  all  parts  of  the  country,  ninety  have  been  fulfilled  by  the  event. 

Percentage  of  verifications  for  each  month  of  the  year  ending  Jnne  30,  1883. 


18 

32. 

18 

& 

Districts. 

j>> 

"3 
>-> 

• 
ss 

5* 
< 

September. 

October. 

November. 

December. 

January. 

February. 

March. 

5 

& 
< 

>> 

es 

M 

• 
| 

p 

|-s 

New  England  

91.0 

84.I 

88.9 

83.4 

87.2 

88.2 

89.9 

80.  i 

88.3 

84.5 

85.6 

85.2 

Middle  Atlantic  states  
South  Atlantic  states  

91.8 
91.4 

84.9 
87.I 

90.4 
93-3 

81.8 
87.3 

88.8 
92.2 

87.1 
88.r 

90.6 
90.8 

88.9 
90.5 

89.5 
90.6 

84.i 

86.8 

87-5 
91.1 

86.6 
90.0 

Eastern  Gulf  states  

92.2 

86.5 

92.8 

86.5 

89.8 

86.5 

90.4 

89.8 

92.8 

88.3 

93-8 

85-1 

Western  Gulf  states  
Lower  lake  region  

92.5 
yi.i 

86.7 
86.9 

93-1 

88.6 

88.0 
86.3 

87.2 
89.8 

88.8 
89.6 

89.0 
%>-5 

92.3 
89.3 

91.1 
90.9 

88.4 
84.4 

92.4 
89.5 

82.8 
81.5 

Upper  lake  region 

88.7 

82.5 

87.1 

91.2 

8?  3 

89.5 

88.3 

90  4 

88.4 

84.6 

87.4 

85.5 

Tennessee  and  Ohio  valley- 

90.7 

84.9 

91.7 

85.1 

90.1 

87.9 

89.8 

91.3 

91.4 

85-5 

90.7 

86.0 

Upper  Mississippi  valley... 

90.0 

79-9 

88.7 

87.9 

88.6 

85.6 

90.1 

88.6 

89.5 

86.2 

89.5 

85.7 

Lower  Missouri  valley  

86.5 

So.  7 

85.7 

81.0 

86.5 

84.4 

87.8 

84.7 

89.7 

85.9 

87.9 

82.4 

Total  

90.6 

84  4 

90.0 

85  8 

88  7 

87.6 

89.6 

88  6 

90.2 

85  9 

89  5 

85.1 

River  Reports. — The  important  work  of  observing  and  reporting  the  fluctuations 
and  floods  of  the  great  western  rivers  was,  at  an  early  period  of  its  history,  under- 
taken by  the  Signal  Service.  Interstate  commerce  being  necessarily  much  af- 
fected by  the  oscillations  of  the  rivers,  timely  warnings  of  their  rise  and  fall,  and 
daily  reports  of  the  exact  depth  of  water  at  numerous  points,  were  eagerly  asked 
for.  These  observations  were  found  of  so  much  importance  that  they  have  been 
extended  over  the  western,  southern,  and  California  rivers,  and  deductions  made 
from  them,  indicating  impending  changes,  are  daily  published  in  the  Washington 
weather  reports.  All  measurements  at  each  river  station  are  made  from  the  "bench- 
mark," as  known  to  the  river  men  of  the  vicinity,  and  the  reading  of  the  gauge  is 
daily  telegraphed  to  the  central  office,  and  all  other  interested  stations.  Knowing 
from  such  telegrams  the  height  of  the  river  at  each  station,  as  well  as  the  total 
amount  of  reported  rainfall  higher  up  the  river  valley,  the  office  is  thus  enabled  to 
calculate  and  announce  the  time  and  degree  of  coming  changes.  Thus,  timely  pre- 
monitions of  the  great  flood-waves  that  pass  down  the  Mississippi,  and  also  its  fluc- 
tuations, are  issued  from  this  office. 

The  gauge  used  is  very  simple.  In  most  cases  it  is  a  plank  of  pine  or  oak  timber, 
two  inches  thick,  ten  inches  wide,  and  long  enough,  when  placed  obliquely  on  the 
slope  of  the  river  bank,  to  cover  the  extreme  low-water  and  high-water  marks. 
When  firmly  imbedded  in  the  earth,  the  "bench-mark,"  which  is  generally  the  lowest 
water  known,  is  taken  as  the  zero  of  the  gauge,  which  is  there  carefully  grad- 
uated, its  subdivisions  exactly  corresponding  to  the  vertical  foot  and  subdivisions  of 


HISTORY   OF  SIGNA.L   SERVICE.  11 

which  they  are  intended  to  be  indices.  A  "danger-line"  is  marked  on  the  gauge, 
showing  how  far  the  water  may  rise,  but  no  farther,  without  danger  of  a  flood.  The 
reports  telegraphed  to  the  press,  showing  how  near  each  stream  has  risen  to,  or  fallen 
below,  the  "danger-line,"  enable  the  public  to  predetermine  dangerous  inundations, 
and  furnish  steamboat-men  and  merchants  the  daily  information  requisite  for  intelli- 
gently directing  the  movements  of  their  craft.  During  the  flood-months  the  tele- 
graphic river-reports  are  especially  valuable  to  all  river-shipping,  and  to  all  inter- 
ested in  the  travelling  and  transportation  facilities  which  depend  upon  it,  as  well  as 
giving  timely  warnings  of  ice-floods  or  sudden  rises  and  falls.  The  levee  systems 
of  the  Mississippi  and  other  great  rivers  are  thus  guarded,  and  the  immense  agri- 
cultural interests  secured,  as  the  flood-warning  comes  in  time  to  summon  the  state 
force  to  strengthen  the  imperilled  works.  The  value  of  this  branch  of  the  Signal 
Service  work  was  amply  shown  during  the  floods  in  the  Ohio  valley  in  1883  and 
1884. 

Daily  bulletins  of  the  river  reports  are  regularly  displayed  at  Augusta,  Georgia; 
Bismarck,  Dakota :  Cairo,  Illinois ;  Cincinnati,  Ohio ;  Davenport  and  Dubuque, 
Iowa;  La  Crosse,  Wisconsin;  Fort  Smith  and  Little  Rock,  Arkansas  ;  Louisville, 
Kentucky;  Memphis  and  Nashville,  Tennessee;  New  Orleans,  Louisiana ;  Pitts- 
burg,  Pennsylvania;  Sacramento,  California;  Shreveport,  Louisiana;  Saint  Louis, 
Missouri ;  Vicksburg,  Mississippi,  and  Yuma,  Arizona.  In  addition  there  are  35 
special  river  stations  from  which  reports  are  received. 

In  connection  with  this  service,  surface  and  bottom-water  temperatures  at  points 
upon  the  rivers,  lakes,  and  sea-coasts  are  observed  and  reported  for  the  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries,  with  a  view  to  ascertain  the  proper 
waters  in  which  to  plant  the  various  food-fishes  and  furnish  statistics  desired  for 
the  development  of  the  national  system  of  pisciculture. 

The  service  reports  such  changes  of  temperature  as  affect  canal  navigation  during 
the  winter  months.  During  the  months  when  the  market  rates  and  freight  schedules 
are  affected  by  the  probabilities  of  the  canals  closing,  and  when  these  water  ways 
are  thronged  with  hundreds  of  laden  barges,  the  daily  predictions  indicate  the 
thermometric  conditions  likely  to  ensue  along  their  lines  of  transit.  Such  informa- 
tion protects  the  public  from  the  imposition  of  excessive  railway  rates  in  the  ship- 
ment of  the  grain  crops,  especially  in  an  autumn  season  of  protracted  mildness, 
and  effects  a  large  saving  to  the  mercantile  world. 

Wide  diffusion  of  the  weather  reports — The  distribution  of  the  tri-daily  "Synopsis 
and  Indications"  over  the  whole  country  may  be  understood  from  the  following 

official  facts:  The  total  number  of  these  forecasts — 1,095  issued  every  year are 

telegraphed  at  the  moment  of  issue  to  the  principal  cities,  and  are  published  in 
some  form  in  almost  every  newspaper  in  the  country.  In  many  public  and  conspic- 
uous places,  they  are  also  bulletined  for  popular  inspection.  In  order  that  they  may 
reach  the  farming  populations,  an  arrangement  is  effected  with  the  Post-Office  De- 
partment by  which  special  "  Farmers'  Bulletins  "  may  be  distributed  at  an  early  morn- 
ing hour  of  each  day,  except  Sunday,  along  the  railroads  radiating  from  the  chief  cities 
of  the  Union.  These  "  Farmers'  Bulletins  "  contain  appropriate  selections  from  the 
matter  of  the  "  midnight  "  report  made  up  in  the  Washington  office  at  I  a.  m.  of  each 
day,  which,  when  it  reaches  the  outlying  stations  by  telegraph,  is  printed  before 
daylight,  and  copies  of  it  mailed  to  the  rural  postmasters  for  many  miles  around, 
and  by  them  displayed  in  their  offices.  There  are  now  eighteen  cities  at  which  the 
Signal  Service  observers  reprint  and  circulate  the  telegraphic  forecasts  to  8,770  sub- 
centres  among  the  agricultural  communities  while  the  reports  are  yet  fresh  and 
timely.  Each  postmaster  has  the  order  of  the  Postmaster-General  to  display  the 
report  as  soon  as  received  in  a  frame  furnished  for  the  purpose,  and  to  report  in 
writing  to  the  Chief  Signal  Officer  the  time  of  its  receipt  and  display.  The  intelli- 


12  HISTORY   OF   SIGNAL   SERVICE. 

gence  of  weather  changes,  with  predictions  and  other  data  useful  to  the  farmer  in 
securing  his  crops  or  in  other  ways,  on  an  average,  reaches  the  different  railway 
stations,  hamlets,  and  villages  throughout  the  United  States  in  the  forenoon.  As 
the  predictions  cover  twenty-four  hours,  and  often  hold  good  for  twice  that  period, 
they  therefore  reach  the  denser  rural  populations  twelve  or  fourteen  hours  before 
the  period  to  which  they  apply  expires,  and  not  unfrequently  a  day  and  a  half  or 
more. 

To  make  the  reports  more  useful  to  the  agricultural  interests,  the  Chief  Signal 
Officer  has,  by  arrangement  with  the  different  railways,  established  a  "  Railway 
Weather-bulletin  Service."  In  this  work  thirty-seven  railway  companies,  distributing 
daily  1934  reports  to  as  many  railway  stations,  are  now  co-operating  without  expense 
to  the  government.  The  midnight  report  exhibiting  the  "  Indications  "  is  telegraphed 
to  the  railway  companies,  whose  superintendents  are  charged  with  seeing  that 
copies  of  it  are  bulletined  and  posted  along  their  lines  a  few  hours  after  it  emanates 
from  the  Washington  office.  By  this  means  the  railroad  officials  and  residents  of 
districts  which  cannot  otherwise  be  reached  in  time,  secure  the  benefits  of  the  gov- 
ernment weather  service.  This  system  of  distribution  is  in  its  infancy,  but  is  capa- 
ble of  indefinite  extension,  and  of  diffusing  the  desired  weather  data  to  a  large 
portion  of  the  agricultural,  commercial,  and  other  interests  of  the  country.  The 
constant  watch  kept  on  the  service,  the  confidence  of  the  public  in  its  work,  and  the 
value  attached  to  its  predictions  and  signals,  are  well  illustrated  by  the  complaints 
made  when  the  forecasts  are  not  fully  justified. 

The  cautionary  storm-signals  which  accompany  the  "  Synopsis  and  Indications," 
issued  to  the  press  three  times  each  day,  constitute  a  very  important  part  of  the  Sig- 
nal Service  work,  and  it  was  the  possibility  of  preparing  such  storm-warnings  for 
the  benefit  of  navigation,  that  originally  gave  the  chief  stimulus  to  the  establishment 
of  a  weather  bureau.  The  United  States  has  a  double  front  with  over  7,000  miles  of 
sea-beaten  coast,  exclusive  of  the  shore  line  of  its  great  lakes  ravaged  by  destruc- 
tive tempests  ;  and  this  vast  stretch  of  marginal  territory  needs  to  be  environed  with 
stations  from  which  observations  can  be  taken,  and  premonitory  intelligence  of 
cyclone  and  anticyclone  signalled  by  day  and  by  night  to  storm-menaced  shipping. 
If  no  other  duty  devolved  upon  the  Service,  this  alone  would  more  than  justify  its 
whole  cost  and  warrant  its  extension.  It  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  and  responsible 
tasks  which  can  fall  to  the  meteorologist,  to  put  his  science  to  the  utmost  stretch  of 
accurate  prevision,  (and  often  it  must  be  done  with  a  very  few  minutes  for  delibera- 
tion) to  decide  at  what  points  on  the  coast  the  storm-wind  will  strike  with  danger- 
ous effect.  It  is,  practically,  fatal  to  the  value  of  his  warnings  if  they  are  found  to  be 
superfluous,  since,  in  that  case,  they  cease  to  command  the  attention  of  seamen. 
Nor,  for  like  reason,  must  they  be  displayed  too  late  ;  nor  yet  too  early,  lest  they 
should  interfere  with  the  movements  of  vessels  which  might  run  out  of  the  danger- 
ous vicinity  before  the  storm  can  reach  them.  Thus  the  perplexing  questions  which 
spring  up  at  every  display  of  the  signals,  lend  to  this  part  of  the  service  intense 
interest.  No  such  work  had  ever  been  undertaken  in  this  country  when  the  Signal 
Service  was  organized,  and  maritime  storm-signalling  in  other  countries  had  only 
been  as  yet  rewarded  by  very  moderate  success. 

On  the  organization  of  the  United  States  weather  service  in  1870,  General  Myer 
began  with  great  caution  to  prepare  for  this  difficult  and  delicate  part  of  his  arduous 
task  ;  and  on  the  24th  of  October,  1871,  the  display  of  signals  on  the  sea-coasts  and 
lakes  commenced.  The  order  regulating  this  display  contemplated  that  the  warning 
should  be  sent  only  to  stations  at  which  a  wind  having  a  velocity  of  twenty-five  miles 
or  more  per  hour  would  occur.  As  the  anemometer  at  every  station1  registers  the 
wind's  velocity  for  every  hour,  it  is  easy  to  ascertain  whether  any  signal  has  been 
justified.  Every  such  display  is  carefully  followed  up  by  the  office,  and  the  result — 


HISTORY   OF   SIGNAL   SERVICE. 


13 


"justified"  or  "not  justified" — is  recorded,  as  reported  by  the   observers  hoisting 
the  signals  by  telegraphic  order  from  the  Chief  Signal  Officer. 

The  cautionary  signals  are  of  two  kinds :  i.  Those  premonishing  dangerous 
winds  to  blow  from  any  direction.  2.  Those  premonishing  off-shore  winds,  likely 
to  drive  vessels  out  to  sea.  Both  kinds  are  needed  by  mariners  as  the  storm-centres 
approach  or  depart  from  a  maritime  station.  The  first,  distinctively  termed  the 
"  Cautionary  Signal,"  consists  of  a  red  flag  with  a  black  square  in  the  centre,  for 
warning  in  the  daytime,  and  a  red  light  by  night.  The  second,  or  "  Cautionary  Off- 
Shore  Signal,"  consists  of  a  white  flag  with  black  square  in  the  centre,  shown  above 
a  red  flag  with  square  black  centre  by  day,  or  a  white  light  shown  above  a  red  light 
by  night,  indicating  that,  while  the  storm  has  not  yet  passed  the  station  and  danger- 
ous winds  may  yet  be  felt  there,  they  will  probably  be  from  a  northerly  or  westerly 
direction  ;  this  second  signal  when  displayed  in  the  lake  region  in  anticipation  of 
high  north  to  west  winds  is  designated  the  "Cautionary  Northwest  Signal."  The 
display  of  either  signal,  however,  is  always  intended  to  be  cautionary,  and  calls  for 
great  vigilance  on  the  part  of  vessels  within  sight  of  it. 


The  Cnicf  Signal  Officer's  report  for  the  year  ending  June    30,  1883,  states  that, 
in  that  year,  1,557   such   signals  had  been  displayed  in  anticipation  of  dangerous 


14  HISTORY   OF   SIGNAL   SERVICE. 

storms  assailing  the  lake  and  sea  coasts  of  the  United  States  ;  and  that  of  the 
number  of  "cautionary"  signals  displayed  83.9  per  cent,  were  afterward  re- 
ported as  justified  by  dangerous  winds;  while  of  the  number  of  "cautionary  off- 
shore" signals  displayed,  89.3  per  cent,  were  afterward  reported  as  justified. 
According  to  the  rules  of  the  office,  a  signal  is  set  down  as  not  justified  unless  it  is 
shown  after  the  display  that  winds  exceeding  twenty-five  miles  per  hour  in  registered 
velocity  have  occurred  at  the  display-station  or  within  a  radius  of  one  hundred 
miles. 

The  total  number  of  sea-ports  and  points  on  the  lakes  and  sea-coasts  where  the 
storm-signals  are  shown  is  one  hundred  and  eleven.  The  points  whence  storm-sig- 
nals are  displayed,  however,  are  only  those  of  the  maritime  margins  of  the  field  of 
research. 

Practical  Use  of  Weather  Reports. — In  referring  to  the  wide-spread  interest  in  the 
weather  predictions  of  the  past  few  years,  a  recent  winter  in  the  "  Quarterly  Re- 
view" observes,  "%ome  basis  of  solid  value  to  the  public  must  exist  to  account  for 
such  a  general  popularity  of  the  weather  service." 

The  tri-daily  "  Indications  "  are  designed  to  give  timely  notice  of  the  general 
weather  changes  to  occur  in  the  twenty-four  hours  following  their  issue.  As  they 
are  telegraphed  from  the  Washington  office,  and  adopted  to  the  convenience  of  the 
daily  press,  they  are  greatly  condensed  to  bring  the  cost  of  telegraphing  with  the 
restricted  means  of  the  service  ;  and  yet  they  must  be  made  sufficiently  full  to  cover 
the  whole  country.  These  conditions  are  hinderances  to  their  usefulness,  and  the 
brevity  of  the  dispatches  expose  them  at  times  to  popular  misrepresentation.  But, 
notwithstanding  these  drawbacks,  the  scope  of  their  practical  application  to  all 
classes  of  industry  is  large  and  continually  increasing.  When  this  weather  bureau 
was  first  proposed,  the  highest  end  thought  attainable  by  the  most  sanguine  was  to 
give  warnings  of  the  great  storms  that  traverse  the  lakes  and  sea-coast  of  the  United 
States.  This,  however,  is  but  a  small  part  of  the  public  interests  it  subserves.  The 
number  of  persons  who  find  that  the  reports  and  forecasts  of  the  service  may  be 
utilized  for  every-day  life  is  constantly  increasing.  Signal  observers  are  frequently 
summoned  to  bring  their  weather  records  into  court  as  evidence.  Grain  and 
cotton  merchants  make  the  reports  valuable  in  calculations  of  the  .forthcoming 
crops.  Emigrants  consult  them  in  the  selection  of  favorable  climatic  conditions 
for  a  new  abode.  Physicians,  sanitarians,  and  boards  of  health  employ  the  data  to 
detect  dangerous  conditions  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  cities,  and  for  investigating 
the  origin  and  spread  of  diseases  and  epidemics,  as  in  the  case  of  recent  yellow- 
fever  visitations  of  the  south.  The  pork-packers,  fruit-importers,  and  fish  and 
oyster-dealers  keep  an  eye  on  them  to  secure  themselves  against  exposure  of 
perishable  goods  to  extremes  of  temperature  or  other  vicissitudes  of  weather. 
They  are  of  use  to  specialists  in  manufacturing  and  to  hygienic  interests,  and  are 
consulted  by  thousands  planning  journeys  or  excursions  for  health  or  pleasure. 
River  boatmen,  farmers,  sugar-planters,  fruit-growers,  ice  dealers,  and  many  other 
interests,  find  occasion  to  utilize  them.  Mechanics  judge  from  the  prognostics 
whether  they  can  work  outside  on  the  morrow.  The  meteorological  data  supply 
engineers  with  information  indispensable  for  planning  economical  and  storm-proof 
architecture.  Railroad  officials  (steam  and  horse),  during  snow-blockades,  are  kept 
advised  by  the  reports,  so  that  they  are  enabled  to  make  provisions  for  clearing 
the  tracks  ;  and  railroad  freight  officers  find  them  useful  for  facilitating  transpor- 
tation. 

These  are  some  of  the  daily  applications  made  of  the  Signal  Service  work  in  the 
interior  and  central,  not  less  than  in  the  seaboard  sections  of  the  country.  In  every 
branch  of  agriculture  and  trade  the  deductions  made  from  the  published  synopsis 
and  indications  of  the  weather,  have  acknowledged  value  to  the  public  when  obtain- 


HISTORY   OF   SIGNAL   SERVICE. 


15 


able.  In  military  operations  the  intelligence  of  approaching  storms  is  highly  prized 
in  timing  movements  so  as  to  avoid  heavy  roads  and  dangerous  delays.  "  Had  we 
a  quarter  of  a  century  ago,"  says  a  British  meteorologist,  "known  the  rigor  of  the 
Crimean  climate,  who  would  have  dared  to  send  out  an  army  unprepared  to  meet  the 
hardships  of  a  Black-sea  winter?  Ask  the  physician  at  what  price  he  would  value 
the  power  of  giving  timely  warning  of  a  'cold  snap '  to  his  patients.  Ask  the  builders 
of  London  what  they  have  lost  in  the  last  ten  years  by  sudden  frosts,  or  unexpected 
downpours  of  rain.  Above  all  things,  go  to  the  farmer  and  ask  what  he  would  freely 
pay  to  know  at  seed  time  what  weather  he  might  really  expect  in  harvest.  The  fact 
is,  there  is  not  a  profession,  not  a  handicraft,  not  a  process  in  animal  or  vegetable 
life,  which  is  not  influenced  by  meterological  changes." 

Private  forecasts. — To  faciliate  such  private  forecasting,  General  Myer  caused  to 
be  prepared  the  "Weather  Case,"  or  "Farmer's  Weather  Indicator."  This  instru- 
ment is  very  simple,  and  it  is  hoped  agriculturists  and  persons  of  ordinary  education 
will  find  it  possible  to  determine  for  themselves  in  advance,  the  character  of  the 


weather  from  local  indications.  At  isolated  places  where  the  reports  cannot  be  had, 
the  diligent  practice  of  such  forecasting  would  probably  in  a  short  time  afford  good 
results.  The  Signal  Service  has  always  encouraged  the  private  study  and  intelli- 
gent local  application  of  its  press-reports,  a'nd  expects  those  who  use  them,  to  con- 
sult their  own  barometers  and  other  instruments,  and  to  examine  the  local  signs  of 


16  HISTORY    OF   SIGNAL   SERVICE. 

the  weather,  as  clouds,  &c.,  with  the  view   of    giving    greater  efficacy  to  its  necessa- 
rily brief  telegrams. 

In  the  execution  of  the  last-named  plan,  the  "  Daily  Graphic"  of  New  York  City, 
publishes  daily,  a  reproduction  of  the  Signal-Service  weather  map,  showing  the 
barometer,  thermometer,  wind,  rainfall,  and  other  conditions  prevailing  over  the 
country  at  the  time  of  going  to  press.  These  charts,  according  to  a  plan  devised 
in  this  office,  have  been  transmitted  from  the  Washington  office  by  telegraph.  By 
an  ingenious  device,  it  is  found  not  difficult  to  transmit  to  any  city  reached  by  tele- 
graph— and  by  the  common  telegraphic  instrument — such  data  prepared  in  the 
Chief  Signal  Office,  as  will  enable  any  newspaper  to  reproduce  on  its  pages  the  of- 
ficial weather-map  for  the  current  period.  Thus  the  Signal-Service  weather-map 
for  i  a.  m.  of  any  date,  precisely  as  charted  in  the  Washington  office,  can  be  tele- 
graphed to  Boston,  Chicago,  Saint  Louis,  Indianapolis,  or  any  other  city,  and  pub- 
lished in  any  size  the  editors  may  prefer,  in  the  papers  printed  that  morning.  The 
adoption  of  this  method  of  popularizing  and  disseminating  weather  knowledge, 
while  the  public  interest  in  the  data  is  fresh,  has  been  received  with  great  satisfac- 
tion in  New  York  City,  and  its  general  extension  to  all  sections  of  the  country  will 
vastly  diffuse  the  benefits  of  the  Service.  It  may  seem  trivial  to  dwell  upon  ap- 
parently slight  changes  in  barometric  and  other  conditions  which  are  curiously 
glanced  at  on  the  weather-map  ;  but  a  moment's  reflection  shows  the  importance  of 
accuracy.  Minute  but  common  barometric  changes,  representing  forces  of  great 
moment  in  the  operation  of  the  atmospheric  machinery,  must  not  be  overlooked  in 
the  deductions  of  practical  meteorology.  But  without  the  weather-map  of  simul- 
taneous observations,  the  presence  and  influence  of  such  changes  cannot  be  detected 
and  estimated. 

SIGNAL-SERVICE    INSTRUMENTS. 

The  necessity  for  accurate  observations  in  a  system  of  weather  telegraphy  brings 
us  to  speak  of  the  instruments  employed  by  the  Signal-Service.  These  ,have  been 

[selected  from  the  bqst  models 
known,  and  subjected  to  experi- 
mental tests  to  perfect  their  reg- 
istrations. Every  barometer, 
thermometer,  or  other  instru- 
ment used  at  the  stations,  under- 
goes thorough  comparison  with 
the  highest  standards  before  it  is 
sent  out  from  the  Office  of  the 
Chief  Signal  Officer,  in  which 
there  is  a  large  apartment  de- 
voted to  this  work,  known  as  the 
"  Meteorological  Observatory." 
The  barometer  is  the  great 
dependence  of  the  meteorologist 
and  upon  its  faithful  accuracy  in 
registering  the  subtile  yet  mo-1 
mentous  changes  of  atmospheric 
pressure  he  must -chiefly  rely. 
It  measures  the  pressure  at  the 
spot  where  it  is  located, 

Fortin's    barometer,  as  manu- 
Diagram  of  pressure  in  a  section  of  a  cycjone.  factured  by  Messrs.   J.  and  H.  J. 

Green  of  New  York  City,  is  the  one  used  by  the  Signal  Service  at  all  its  stations.     The 


HISTORY   OF   SIGNAL   SERVICE.  17 

instrument  is  kept  in  a  room  of  as  uniform  a  temperature  as  practicable,  and  in  a 
vertically  suspended  wooden  box  which  can  be  closed  when  the  observer  is  not 
taking  observations.  For  purposes  of  comparison  and  the  detection  of  any  error, 
as  well  as  to  have  a  substitute  in  case  of  accident,  two  barometers  are  supplied  to 
each  station.  Each  instrument  after  it  comes  from  the  maker's  hands  is  subjected 
to  the  signal-office  tests,  and  the  correction  for  instrumental  error  is  determined 
by  comparison  with  the  standard  barometer  kept  at  the  office,  when  a  certificate  of 
correction  is  made  out  and  attached  to  the  instrument.  Its  readings  may  deviate  to 
a  very  slight  extent  from  those  of  the  standard;  but  such  deviations  being  known 
to  a  thousandth  part  of  an  inch,  allowance  as  made  for  them  whenever  the  observer 
makes  his  barometric  report.  As  the  elevation  of  the  barometer  above  sea-level 
is  determined  for  each  station,  the  proper  correction  for  that  is  also  applied  at  each 
reading. 

Great  care  is  taken  in  the  location,  correction,  .and  reading  of  the  service  ther- 
mometers. The  instrument  is  placed  in  the  open  air,  so  situated  that  it  will  always 
be  in  the  shade  and  yet  have  a  free  circulation  of  air  around  it,  and  beyond  the 
influence  of  any  artificial  heat.  Its  surface  is  also  carefully  protected  and  kept  free 
from  rain  or  moisture  of  any  kind,  and  its  bulb  so  placed-  as  to  have  no  contact  with 
the  metallic  scale  or  back.  Every  thermometer  sent  out  to  a  signal  station  under- 
goes careful  comparison  with  the  standard  kept  in  the  central  office  and  is  furnished 
with  a  certificate  of  corrections.  The  maximum  and  minimum  thermometers  are 
likewise  tested,  and  the  slightest  variations  from  the  standard  instruments  deter- 
mined by  protracted  experiments,  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  office,  before  they  are 
issued  to  the  observers.  These  instruments,  by  the  constant  and  minute  inspec- 
tion of  officers  detailed  to  visit  all  the  stations,  as  also  by  the  rigid  scrutiny  of 
the  observers  themselves,  are  kept  up  to  a  high  point  of  accuracy  and  precision. 
In  the  central  office,  1,357  meteorological  instruments  were,  in  1883,  carefully  com- 
pared with  the  "official  standards,"  and  issued  to  the  stations. 

The  rain-gauges  employed  are  of  uniform  pattern,  and  register  the  amount  of 
precipitation  to  inches  and  hundreths  of  an  inch.  They  are  placed  with  the  tops 
at  least  twelve  inches  from  the  ground,  and  in  such  places  as  not  to  be  affected  by 
local  peculiarities  or  obstructions.  They  are  firmly  fixed  in  a  vertical  position,  and 
beyond  the  risk  of  being  tampered  with  by  unauthorized  hands.  The  rain-water 
collecting  in  them  is  measured  by  a  measuring-rod,  graduated  to  inches  and  tenths 
of  inches  ;  snow  is  melted  and  then  measured  in  the  same  way. 

The  wind-velocity  measurer  or  anemometer,  which  up  to  the  present  time  has 
been  found  the  most  satisfactory,  is  that  of  Robinson.  It  consists  of  four  hemis- 
pherical cups  revolving  in  a  horizontal  plane  and  communicating  their  motion  to  a 
vertical  shaft  or  axis.  In  whatever  direction  the  wind  blows,  these  cups  will  always 
be  driven  around  with  their  convex  sides  foremost,  since  the  air  presses  with  more 
effect  into  the  cups  than  on  their  exteriors.  Experiments  have  shown  that  the 
velocity  of  the  cups  in  all  cases  is  approximately  one  third  of  that  with  which  the 
wind  blows,  no  matter  from  what  point  of  the  compass  it  comes  ;  and  that  this 
relation  between  the  velocity  of  the  cups  and  that  of  the  winds  is  independent  of 
the  size  of  the  instrument.  As  the  distance  travelled  by  the  cups  is  three  times 
that  travelled  by  the  wind,  the  velocity  of  the  latter  can  be  easily  deduced.  Gener- 
ally it  is  placed  twenty  feet  above  the  roof  of  the  building  in  which  the  office  is 
located.  In  some  American  storms  the  wind  has  been  found  to  blow  with  the  tremen- 
dous velocity  of  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  thirty-eight  miles  per  hour, 
and  it  is  difficult  to  find  or  frame  an  anemometer,  which  while  delicate  enough  to 
register  small  disturbances,  will  be  strong  enough  to  stand  the  force  of  such  hurri- 


18 


HISTORY   OF   SIGNAL   SEE  VICE. 


canes.     But  the  experiments  of  the  Signal   Service,  it  is  hoped,  will  lead  to  some 
instrumental  improvement  in  this  direction. 


Signal  Service  anemometer,  with  self-registering  attachments.     • 

The^Signal  Service  has  endeavored  to  obtain  barometers,  thermometers,  &c., 
which  will  be  self-recording,  and  give,  without  manipulation,  continuous,  exact,  and 
graphic  registers  of  the  atmospheric  fluctuations.  Numerous  ingenious  contriv- 
ances have  been  for  years  under  careful  testing  by  the  office,  with  the  view  of  securing 
forms  adapted  to  general  use  on  stations. 

THE   INTERNATIONAL   WEATHER    SERVICE. 

This  novel  and  vast  extension  of  the  national  work  done  by  the  United  States 
weather  service  is  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  feature  in  the  development  of 
modern  meteorology.  Previous  to  the  adoption  of  the  system  of  "  simultaneous  " 
weather-reports  by  General  Myer  in  1870,  comparatively  few  observations  had  been 
taken  in  any  country  that  could  be  strictly  called  simultaneous,  suitable  for  the  prep- 
aration of  synoptic  weather-charts,  or  that  could  be  regarded  as  strictly  intercom- 
parable  ;  but,  in  each  country  where  weather-reports  on  a  large  scale  were  made, 
they  were  prepared  from  daily  observations  made  at  moments  of  time  more  or  less 
widely  separated.  The  organization  and  successful  working  of  a  weather  bureau  upon 
such  a  simultaneous  system  in  the  United  States  prepared  the  way,  however,  for  an 
international  weather  service.  Accordingly,  when  in  September,  1873,  an  Interna- 


HISTORY   OF  SIGNAL   SERVICE.  19 

tional  Meteorological  Congress  was  convened  at  Vienna — an  assemblage  composed 
of  the  official  heads  of  the  meteorological  bureaus  of  the  different  powers — an 
original  proposition  was  made  by  General  Myer,  as  the  Chief  Signal  Officer  of  the 
United  States  Army,  looking  toward  a  world-wide  scheme  of  weather  research. 
General  Myer's  proposition  was  to  this  effect :  "That  it  is  desirable,  with  a  view  to 
their  exchange,  that  at  least  one  uniform  observation,  of  such  character  as  to  be 
suited  for  the  preparation  of  synoptic  charts,  taken  and  recorded  daily  at  as 
many  stations  as  practicable  throughout  the  world."  The  author  of  this  proposition 
had  in  his  report  to  the  United  States  Congress,  in  1872,  expressed  a  desire  for  such 
a  cosmopolitan  work — "  a  grand  chain  of  interchanged  international  reports,  destined 
with  a  higher  civilization  to  bind  together  the  signal  service  of  the  world"  ;  and  the 
Vienna  conference  now  responded  to  his  overture  with  alacrity.  The  atmosphere  is 
a  uii-it,  and  to  be  understood  must  be  studied  as  a  unit ;  and  to  comprehend  the 
forces  which  conspire  to  make  a  single  cyclone,  we  must  extend  our  investigation  far 
beyond  our  territorial  limits. 

The  adoption  of  General  Myer's  proposition  by  the  Vienna  Congress,  and  the 
courteous  co-operation  on  the  part  of  all  the  leading  governments  of  Europe,  soon 
enabled  him  to  collect  materials  for  laying  the  foundation  of  international  research. 
Rapidly  expanding,  in  1874,  the  exchange  of  simultaneous  reports  became  numerous 
enough  to  admit  of  making  a  daily  "Weather-Bulletin  and  Chart;"  and  on  January 
i,  1875,  the  signal  office  at  Washington  commenced  the  daily  publication  of  the 
"  Bulletin  of  International  Simultaneous  Meteorological  Observations,  of  the  north- 
ern hemisphere,"  presenting  the  tabulated  results  of  simultaneous  weather-reports 
from  all  the  co-operating  observers.  These  reports  to  cover  the  combined  territorial 
extent  of  Algiers,  Australia,  Austria,  Belgium,  Central  America,  China,  Denmark, 
France,  Germany,  Great  Britain,  Greece,  Greenland,  India,  Ireland,  Italy,  Japan, 
Mexico,  Morocco,  the  Netherlands,  Norway,  Portugal,  Russia,  Spain,  Sweden, 
Switzerland,  Tunis,  Turkey,  British  North  America,  the  United  States,  the  Azores, 
Malta,  Mauritius,  the  Sandwich  islands,  South  Africa,  South  America,  and  the  West 
Indies,  so  far  as  they  have  been  placed  under  meteorological  surveillance  ;  and  also 
the  great  ocean  highways,  on  which  the  ships  of  all  flags  take  observations  while 
en  route  from  port  to  port. 

As  early  as  July  i,  1878,  in  connection  with  the  daily  International  Bulletin,  Gen- 
eral Myer  began  the  daily  publication  of  a  graphic  synoptic  "  International  Weather 
Map."  This  chart  covers  the  whole  international  net-work  of  observations,  and  is 
the  supplement  and  key  to  the  daily  bulletin,  both  being  based  on  the  same  data, 
and  both  of  the  same  date.  The  "  International  Weather-Map  of  Simultaneous 
Observations  "  exhibits  the  aerial  phenomena  as  they  actually  existed  all  around  the 
earth  at  a  fixed  moment  of  time. 

In  carrying  out  this  international  enterprise  the  Signal  Service  has  the  co-operation 
of  the  British,  Portuguese,  Swedish,  and  American  navies.  It  also  has  the  co-opera- 
tion of  the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Company,  White  Star  Line,  Occidental  and  Ori- 
ental Steamship  Company,  North-German  Lloyd,  American  Steamship  Company, 
Red  Star  Line,  Allan  Line,  and  others.  The  daily  bulletins  and  charts  prepared 
from  the  collective  data  are  mailed  to  every  co-operating  observer  without  charge, 
as  an  acknowledgment  of  his  service  to  science,  and  constitute  in  themselves  an 
invaluable  meteorological  library.  In  the  case  of  maritime  observers,  the  Signal 
Service  bears  the  expense  of  blanks,  postage,  etc.;  and  when  necessary  it  furnishes 
the  ship-master  with  the  requisite  instruments.  The  number  of  marine  observers 
is  481,  and  all  navigators  are  requested  to  contribute  to  this  system  of  reports.  As 
a  striking  illustration  of  the  opportunities  which  a  vessel  at  sea  has  for  aiding  in 
this  meteorological  work,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  steamship  "  Faraday,"  when 
laying  the  last  Atlantic  cable,  encountered  a  severe  cyclone  in  mid-ocean,  which, 


20 


HISTORY   OF   SIGNAL   SERVICE. 


without  heaving  to,  she  reported  by  her  telegraphic  wire  to  Europe,  noting  the 
successive  changes  of  wind  as  the  different  quadrants  of  the  storm  passed  over  her  ; 
thus  indicating  to  those  on  land  the  direction  and  progressive  velocity  of  the  gale, 
so  that  they  could  calculate  the  time  and  locality  at  which  it  would  strike  upon  the 
European  coasts. 


If,  as  General  Myer  held,  it  is  practicable  to  establish  floating  stations  in  mid- 
Atlantic,  connected  by  cable  with  the  continent,  the  reports  from  such  posts  would 
be  of  incalculable  value  to  British  and  continental  meteorologists  in  making  out 
their  daily  weather  forecasts  and  ordering  storm-warnings  for  their  sea-ports. 

The  proposition  of  General  Myer  at  Vienna,  in  1873,  was  that  observations  be 
taken  daily  and  simultaneously  at  as  many  stations  as  practicable  "throughout  the 
world."  A  recent  meteorological  conference  at  Hamburg  recommended  a  concert 
of  all  nations  for  planting  a  cordon  of  weather  observatories  in  high  northern  and 
southern  latitudes  around  the  poles.  Indeed,  there  is  scarcely  a  problem  relating 
to  the  physical  geography  and  meteorology  of  our  own  country  which  can  be  fully 
solved  without  recourse  to  more  extended  investigations  outside  of  the  United 
States.  The  international  weather  service  is  the  great  hope  of  the  meteorology  of 
the  future. 

In  addition  to  the  daily  international  charts  published  by  the  Chief  Signal  Officer 


HISTORY   OF   SIGNAL   SERVICE.  21 

monthly  international  charts  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  displaying  the  monthly 
storm-tracks,  isobars,  isotherms,  and  prevailing  winds,  are  issued.  These  charts 
are  now  published  in  the  "Monthly  Summary  and  Review,"  a  publication  sent 
to  all  observers,  on  land  and  sea,  who  co-operate  with  the  Signal  Service  in  its 
international  research.  To  aid  ship-masters  of  every  flag  in  keeping  their  instru- 
ments correct,  the  Chief  Signal  Officer  has  also  placed  standard  barometers  at  the 
ports  of  New  York  City,  San  Francisco,  and  elsewhere  for  reference  and  comparison. 
Without  pecuniary  charge  to  foreign  or  American  ships,  their  barometers,  on  ap- 
plication to  the  signal  office  at  these  ports  are  carefully  tested,  adjusted,  and  cor- 
rected for  effective  use  at  sea.  / 

With  the  extension  and  collation  of  the  international  weather-reports,  we  may 
hope,  as  General  Myer  has  said,  that  "the  questions  as  to  the  translations  of  storms 
from  continent  to  continent,  and  of  the  times  and  directions  they  may  take  in  such 
movements;  the  movement  of  areas  of  high  and  low  barometer;  the  conditions  of 
temperature,  pressure,  etc.,  existing  around  the  earth  at  a  fixed  instant  of  time  ,  as 
well  as  questions  of  climatology  and  others  bearing  upon  the  prediction  of  weather 
changes  far  in  advance  of  the  time  at  which  these  changes  happen,  or  queries  as  to 
the  character  of  coming  seasons,  may  be  settled."  If  the  Signal  Service  undertook 
no  other  duty  than  the  collection  of  materials  for  the  construction  of  the  science  of 
international  meteorology  and  climatology,  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  harvest 
of  observational  data  thus  garnered  would  ultimately  be  worth  all  the  labor  and 
expense  the  service  has  cost  the  Government.  But,  to  secure  such  results,  it  can- 
not be  too  widely  or  urgently  insisted  on  that  navigators,  ship-owners,  steamship 
companies,  and  all  naval  officers  should  use  their  earnest  efforts  and  influence  to 
obtain  simultaneous  weather-reports  from  all  sea-going  steamers  andsaling  vessels. 
The  ablest  scientific  journal  of  Great  Britain,  "Nature,"  recently  said  that  it  "earn- 
estly hopes  that  the  navies  and  mercantile  vessels  of  all  nations  will  soon  join  in 
carrying  out  this  magnificent  scheme  of  observations,  originated  by  the  Americans 
in  1873  an<^  since  then  further  developed  and  carried  on  by  them  with  the  greatest 
ability  and  success."  Sentiments  similar  in  effect  were  expressed  at  the  Interna- 
tional Meteorological  Congress  convened  in  Rome,  Italy,  in  April,  1879. 

The  sea-coast  telegraph  lines  are  another  important  portion  of  the  organization.  By 
act  of  Congress,  the  Secretary  of  War  was  authorized  to  establish  signal  stations  at 
the  light-houses  and  life-saving  stations  on  the  lakes  and  sea-coasts,  and  to  connect 
these  signal  stations  with  telegraph  lines,  to  be  constructed,  maintained,  and  worked 
under  the  direction  of  the  Chief  Signal  Officer  of  the  Army;  and  the  use  made  of 
the  life-saving  stations  is  subject  to  such  regulations  as  are  fixed  upon  by  the  Chief 
Signal  Officer,  the  Secretary  of  War,  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  By  this 
co-operative  arrangement,  the  Signal  Service  has  become  a  valuable,  if  not  indis- 
pensable auxiliary  to  the  sister  services  with  which  it  connects,  and  shares  very 
materially  in  their  labors  and  responsibilities. 

The  coast  signal  stations  aim  to  warn  vessels  within  signalling  distance,  of  the 
approach  of  storms,  and  to  give  life-saving  stations  quick  notice  of  marine  dis- 
asters calling  for  rescue,  as  also  to  furnish  any  intelligence  to  the  latter,  or  to  the 
light-houses,  which  may  insure  their  more  efficient  working.  Connected  by 
wire  or  submarine  cable,  as  all  the  signal  stations  on  the  sea-coast  are  from 
Sandy  Hook,  New  Jersey,  to  Smithville,  North  Carolina,  and  connected  similarly 
with  the  Office  of  the  Chief  Signal  Officer  at  Washington,  whence  they  are  kept 
advised  of  any  change  in  the  meteorological  status,  they  are  thus  enabled,  from  their 
full  ocean  view,  to  communicate  directly  any  warnings  from  the  Chief  Signal  Officer 
to  passing  ships,  or  to  convey  to  him  any  facts  which  may  be  of  use  to  the  Wash- 
ington office.  The  telegraphic  wires  connect  each  station  with  the  central  office. 
The  weather  reports  and  observations  of  the  indications  of  the  sea  thus  obtained, 


22 


HISTORY   OF   SIGNAL   SERVICE. 


are  often  of  the  greatest  value  to  the  Washington  office  in  its  work  of  pre-announcing 
the  force,  direction,  and  velocity  of  the  great  hurricanes  from  the  West  Indies 
which  traverse  our  Atlantic  seaboard. 

As  an  illustation  of  this,  it  may  suffice  to  note  that  in  the  summer  of  1873,  when 
the  great  August  hurricane,  which  so  furiously  assailed  and  wrecked  several  hundred 
sail,  was  still  passing  over  the  Bermudas,  its  long,  dead  swell  was  outrunning  its 
centre  by  600  miles,  driving  in  the  bathers  at  Long  Branch  and  pouring  into  New 
York  bay,  The  steamer  "Albemarle"  encountered  its  fore-running  wave  on  the 
voyage  from  Halifax  to  the  Bermudas,  and,  though  the  morning  was  fair,  suspecting 
danger,  the  vessel  was  hove  to  for  a  few  hours  to  examine  the  swell.  Concluding 
that  the  hurricane  was  advancing  directly  upon  him,  her  captain  changed  his  course 
from  southerly  to  westerly,  and  by  a  slight  detour  eluded  the  gale. 


The  Signal-Service  station  at  Cape  Henry  signalling  to  the  stranded  bark  "Pant/er." 

As  one  by  one,  yet  all  independently,  the  coast  signal  observers  on  any  day  tele- 
graph to  the  central  office  the  same  significant  tidings  of  the  ocean  indications  of  an 
Atlantic  gale — the  intensity  and  direction  of  the  swell — their  concurrent  observations 
often  present  unmistakable  proofs  of  the  presence,  course,  and  progressive  rate  of 
these  menacing  storms.  The  intelligence  thus  afforded  is  indispensable  to  the 
storm-warning  and  weather-prediction  work  of  the  Washington  authorities. 

But,  apart  from  the  meteorological  value  of  such  a  coast  Signal  Service,  its  inci- 
dental contributions  to  the  life-saving  stations  have  already  proved  of  the  greatest 
assistance. 

On  the  22d  of  March,  1877,  after  a  severe  storm  on  the  middle  Atlantic  coast, 
Sergeant  William  Stein,  of  the  Signal  Corps,  in  charge  of  the  Cape  Henry  station, 
discovered  before  dawn  a  large  vessel  stranded  on  a  shoal  off  that  station,  and  sum- 
moned the  wreckers  at  Norfolk  to  come  to  the  rescue.  With  the  earliest  light  the 
sergeant  displayed  the  "attention  flags"  of  the  international  code,  with  which  every 
sea-coast  signal-station  is  supplied,  and  receiving  answer  that  she  was  the  "  Win- 


HISTORY   OF   SIGNAL   SERVICE. 


23 


Chester,"  of  Liverpool,  with  request  for  two  steam-tugs  to  be  sent  to  the  vessel,  he 
telegraphed  at  once  to  Norfolk  for  wrecking-steamers.  Before  sundown  active  efforts 
were  made  to  save  the  stranded  vessel.  She  was  gotten  off  the  shoal  after  some 
days'  labor;  but,  meantime,  three  other  vessels,  in  a  second  storm  (of  the  25th), 
were  stranded  within  a  mile  of  her.  Sergeant  Stein  again  telegraphed  the  wreckers 
at  Norfolk  for  aid.  He  ascertained  the  name  of  the  bark  in  greatest  peril  to  be  the 
"Pantzer,"  a  Norwegian  vessel,  and  the  crew  of  the  life-saving  service  a  little  later 
succeeded  in  firing  a  life-line  over  her  deck.  The  Norwegians  did  not  comprehend 
its  use,  but  after  some  effort  the  signal-service  officer,  by  means  of  international 
signals,  instructed  her  crew  to  "haul  in  on  the  line,"  and  by  nine  o'clock  all  the 
crew  of  the  "  Pantzer "  were  safely  landed.  In  the  wrecks  of  the  steamships 
"Huron"  (of  the  United  States  Navy),  "  L'Am^rique,"  and  "Russland,"  the  first 
tidings  were  conveyed  by  the  Signal-Service  wires,  and  through  them  succor  was 
speedily  summoned.  In  the  case  of  the  "  Huron,"  drifted  ashore  near  Kitty  Hawk, 
a  private  of  the  Signal  Corps,  A.  T.  Sherwood,  stationed  at  that  place,  received  the 
first  intelligence  November  23d,  and,  after  telegraphing  to  Washington,  hastened  to 
the  awful  scene,  walking  sixteen  miles  through  the  sand,  and  brought  full  reports  of 
the  situation  to  his  station, 
which  were  instantly  tele- 
graphed to  the  Chief  Signal 
Officer.  The  War  and  Navy 
Departments  and  the  Life- 
saving  Service  were  thus 
notified,  and  by  them  steam- 
ers of  the  navy  and  wrecking 
companies  were  started  to 
the  fatal  point  of  the  shore 
on  which  the  "  Huron  "  had 
gone  to  pieces.  The  Kitty 
Hawk  observer  immediately 
on  receiving  orders  from  the 
Chief  Signal  Officer,  opened 
a  "wreck-station"  abreast  of 
the  foundered  vessel  before 
daylight  of  the  25th,  con- 
necting it  by  a  temporary 
telegraph-wire  with  his  sta- 
tion, and,  working  this  im- 
provised station  on  the  open 
beach,  while  the  gale  was 
yet  raging,  drew  toward  the 
spot  the  whole  organized 
relief  force  of  the  govern- 
ment. 

A  similar  service  was  per- 
formed on  the  stormy  night 
of  January  31,  1878,  by 
another  private  soldier  of 
the  Signal  Corps,  William 
Davis,  when  the  steamship 
"Metropolis,"  with  248  souls  Signal-Service  sea-coast  telegraph-lines, 

on  board,  became  a  total  wreck,  twenty  miles  from  Kitty  Hawk  station.    At  6.55  p.  m. 
on  that  night,  intelligence  of  the  disaster  reached  Kittv  Hawk,  and  in  less  than  fifteen 


24  HISTORY  OF   SIGNAL   SERVICE. 

minutes  Private  Davis,  carrying  telegraphic  and  signal  apparatus,  was  riding 
through  the  night  and  storm  to  the  scene.  By  4  a.  m.  he  had  reached  the  ves- 
sel, established  his  telegraph  station  abreast  of  her,  opened  communication,  and 
fowarded  a  report  to  the  Chief  Signal  Officer  at  Washington,  and  was  putting  in 
motion  all  the  machinery  of  relief  and  succor  which  the  country  could  command. 
The  observers  of  the  coast  signal-station,  whenever  it  is  practicable,  board  vessels 
that  have  gone  ashore,  and  open  communication  with  the  land.  An  instance  of 
this  may  be  cited  from  the  action  of  Private  Harrison,  of  the  Signal  Corps,  at  Cape 
Henry,  when  the  bark  "  Guisseppe  Masson  "  was  wrecked  near  that  station,  February 
10,  1878.  His  presence  prevented  the  crew  from  deserting  their  ship,  which,  by  the 
aid  of  powerful  wrecking-steamers,  was  subsequently  saved.  Other  instances  of 
boarding  vessels  could  be  cited  as  those  of  the  Italian  bark  "  Francesco  Bellagambe  " 
and  the  British  steamship  "Antonio,"  both  boarded  by  Signal  Service  men,  who 
afterward  kept  up  signal  conversation  with  the  shore  until  the  ships  were  saved. 
These  cases  will  suffice  to  show  the  intimate  alliance  existing  between  the  coast 
Signal  Service  and  the  results  announced  by  the  Life-saving  Service.  Without  the 
Signal  Service  co-operation,  the  latter  would  often,  in  emergencies  that  arise,  be 
powerless  to  command  the  needed  help,  as  well  as  communicate  with  stranded  ves- 
sels. For  the  Signal  Service,  only  men  drilled  in  signalling  can  avail. 

So  arranged  is  the  coast  Signal  Service,  that  not  only  are  its  storm-flags  and  dan- 
ger warnings  visible  to  vessels  moving  off  the  coast,  but,  even  a  vessel  moving  en 
voyage  (say  one  which  is  bound  from  the  equator  to  New  York),  as  she  passes  Cape 
Henlopen,  may  inquire  by  signals  whether  any  hurricane  is  impending ;  if  so, 
whether  she  has  time  to'  reach  Sandy  Hook  before  its  arrival,  or  must  take  shelter 
behind  the  Delaware  breakwater.  Or  a  vessel  bound  from  New  York  or  any  north- 
ern port,  southward,  on  reaching  the  capes  of  the  Delaware,  can  make  inquiry  as 
to  whether  any  storm  is  likely  to  strike  her  before  she  can  make  Cape  Hatteras, 
and  receive  full  advice  by  telegraph  from  the  Chief  Signal  Officer  at  Washington,  in 
a  very  brief  time.  With  adequate  appropriations,  this  coast  Signal  Service  could 
easily  be  made  of  far  greater  value  to  all  the  shipping  and  mercantile  interests. 

As  the  Chief  Signal  Officer  has  said  :  •'  The  time  is  not  far  distant  when  the  pos- 
session of  a  coast  not  covered  by  sea-coast  storm-signal  and  Signal  Service  stations, 
watching  as  sentinels  each  its  own  beat  of  sea  and  shore,  and  ready  to  summon  aid 
by  electric  wires,  will  be  held  as  much  an  evidence  of  semi-barbarism,  as  is  now 
among  civilized  nations  the  holding  of  any  national  coast  without  a  system  of  light- 
house lights."  In  event  of  war,  with  a  completed  chain  of  coast  signal-stations,  no 
part  of  our  exposed  sea-coast  could  be  threatened  without  immediate  intelligence  of 
the  fact  being  flashed  to  the.  Washington  office  and  all  along  the  coast,  and  the 
defensive  power  of  the  government  concentrated  at  the  point  endangered.  The 
chain  of  telegraphic  sea-coast  stations  at  present  is  six  hundred  and  ten  miles  long, 
stretching  from  Sandy  Hook  to  the  mouth  of  Cape  Fear  River. 

The  military  telegraph  system  constructed,  owned,  and  operated  by  the  Signal  Ser- 
vice, is  more  extensive  than  the  sea-coast  system  mentioned.  In  pursuance  of  acts 
of  Congress,  this  service  has  now  completed  in  the  interior  and  upon  the  frontier 
an  extensive  net-work  of  telegraph  lines  for  connecting  military  posts,  with  a  view 
to  the  protection  of  the  population  from  Indian  depredations,  and  the  transmission 
of  meteorological,  military,  and  other  reports  to  the  Government.  A  total  length  of 
2,803  rniles  of  frontier  line  is  now  operated  and  maintained  by  the  Signal  Service. 
This  connected  system  of  telegraph  lines  is  one  of  the  most  effective  safe-guards 
against  Indian  raids  and  warlike  movements,  since  it  enables  the  scattered  military 
forces  of  the  United  States  to  obtain  timely  notice  of  such  movements,  and  to 
concentrate  quickly  at  any  threatened  point  to  repel  attack.  The  Indian  strategy 
is  to  pass  between  the  Government  army  posts  unobserved,  so  that  their  plans  may 


HISTORY   OF  SIGNAL   SERVICE.  25 

not  be  reported,  a  very  difficult  thing  in  a  region  traversed  by  electric  wires.  To 
break  them  is  to  announce  their  purpose  and  betray  themselves,  alarming  the  post 
and  settlements  on  both  sides  of  the  break,  and  evoking  spirited  pursuit  and  severe 
punishment  by  the  troops.  As  an  engine  of  civilization,  the  frontier  telegraph 
rivals  the  railway,  enabling  the  Government  to  throw  an  aegis  of  protection  over  the 
rapidly  expanding  wave  of  western  emigration,  and  thus  facilitating,  no  doubt,  the 
sale  and  settlement,  as  well  as  the  material  deVolopment  of  the  public  lands.  These 
Signal  Service  lines  are  in  part  self-supporting,  as  they  transmit  not  only  Govern- 
ment but  private  telegrams  of  the  civilian  population,  and  save  the  expense  of  tele- 
graphing by  other  lines  the  meteorological  reports  necessary  for  the  weather  work  at 
Washington,  besides  serving  to  convey  a  great  number  of  official  dispatches  and 
correspondence  for  various  departments  of  the  Government,  that  would  otherwise 
have  to  be  transmitted,  at  considerable  cost,  on  non-govermental  lines,  or  sent  by 
couriers. 

But  apart  from  all  the  incidental  benefits  and  economies  wrought  by  this  frontier 
telegraph  system,  its  value  in  the  scientific  work  of  the  weather-bureau  proper,  is 
felt  to  be  the  greatest.  The  lines  in  Texas  have  made  it  possible  to  furnish  weather- 
reports  daily  on  the  coast  of  that  state  ;  and  those  in  the  northwest  permit  a  series 
of  observations  and  reports  not  otherwise  attainable,  which  are  of  the  first  impor- 
tance for  all  purposes  of  weather  prediction  throughout  the  United  States.  Meagre 
as  the  data  now  obtainable  from  the  northwest  are,  they  are  indispensable  for  the 
processes  of  weather  telegraphy  in  the  Mississippi  valley  and  lake  region.  To 
study  these  momentous  meteorological  agencies  and  to  receive  timely  notice  of  their 
arrival  on  the  extreme  northwestern  frontier,  is  perhaps  the  most  important  task,  so 
far  as  weather  prognostication  goes,  that  the  Signal  Service  could  pursue.  The 
extension  of  its  telegraphic  and  observational  stations  in  this  direction  would  im- 
mensely enhance  its  general  effectiveness  and  give  fresh  stimulus  to  almost  every 
meteorological  investigation  which  the  service  is  now  pushing. 

The  length  of  Signal-Service  telegraph  lines  in  the  interior  and  on  the  frontier  at 
present  is  as  follows  :  Arizona  Division  510  miles,  with  13  stations  ;  Texas  Division, 
197  miles,  with  5  stations  ;  the  Northwestern  Division,  893  miles,  with  20  stations; 
the  Washington  and  Idaho  Division,  500  miles,  with  18  stations  ;  the  Division  of 
the  Military  Department  of  the  Missouri,  703  miles,  with  17  stations  ;  total  2803 
miles,  with  73  stations. 

In  concluding  this  necessarily  much  condensed  sketch  of  the  national  weather- 
service,  its  pressing  wants  should  not  be  overlooked.  No  other  service  appeals  so 
strongly  to  the  interests  which  it  daily  subserves  for  intelligent  co-operation.  The 
public  press  can  do  much  to  advance  its  development  by  systematic  republication 
and  explanation  of  its  observations  and  deductions,  and  especially  by  reproducing 
the  data  furnished  in  its  "  Monthly  Weather  Review,"  and  in  the  daily  telegraphic 
"Synopsis."  Time  and  toil  are  necessary  to  harvest  the  fruit  of  seeds  sown  ;  but, 
as  the  President  of  the  American  Geographical  Society,  Chief  Justice  Daly,  has 
said  : 

"  Nothing  in  the  nature  of  scientific  investigation  by  the  national  government  has 
proved  so  acceptable  to  the  people,  or  has  been  productive  inso  short  a  time  of  such 
important  results,  as  the  establishment  of  the  Signal  Service  bureau." 


LIST  OF  PUBLICATIONS  OF  SIGNAL  OFFICE. 


ANNUAL  REPORTS. 

1870.*  1872.  1874.*  1876.*  1878.*  1880.  1882.* 

1871.  1873.*  1875.*  1877.  1879.  1881. 

PROFESSIONAL  PAPERS  (quarto). 

I.  General  Report  on  the  Solar  Eclipse  of  1878.* — Professor  Abbe. 

II.  Isothermal   Lines   of  the  United   States,  1871-1880. — A.  W.   Greely,  ist  Lieu- 
tenant, 5th  Cavalry. 

III.  Chronological  List  of  Auroras.* — A.  W.  Greely,  ist  Lieutenant,  5th  Cavalry. 

IV.  Tornadoes  of  May  29  and  30,  1879. — Jonn  P-  Finley,   2d  Lieutenant,  Signal 
Corps. 

V.  Information  Relative  to  the  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  Time  Balls.* — 
Compiled  by  Prof.  W.  Upton  from  sundry  sources. 

VI.  The  Reduction  of  Air  Pressure  to  Sea-Level  at  Elevated  Stations  West  of 
the  Mississippi  River. — Prof.  H.  A.  Hazen. 

VII.  Report  on  the   Character  of  Six  Hundred  Tornadoes. — John  P.   Finley,  2d 
Lieutenant,  Signal  Corps. 

VIII.  The  Motion  of  Fluids  and  Solids  on  the  Earth's  Surface.— Prof.  W.  Ferrel— 
Notes  by  Prof.  F.  Waldo. 

IX.  Charts   and    Tables   Showing   Geographical   Distribution   of    Rainfall   in  the 
United  States. — H.  H.  C.  Dunwoody,  ist  Lieutenant,  4th  Artillery. 

X.  Signal  Service  Tables  of  Rainfall  and  Temperature  Compared  with  Crop  Pro- 
duction.— H.  H.  C.  Dunwoody,  ist  Lieutenant,  4th  Artillery. 

XL   Meteorological    and    Physical    Observations    on    the    East   Coast    of    British 
America — O.  T.  Sherman. 

XII.  Popular  Essays  on  the  Movements  of  the  Atmosphere. — Prof.  W.  Ferrel. 

XIII.  Temperature  of  the  Atmosphere  and  Earth's  Surface. — Prof.  W.  Ferrel. 

SIGNAL  SERVICE  NOTES  (octavo). 

I.  Report  on  the  Michigan  Forest  Fires  of  1881. — W.  O.  Bailey,  Sergeant,  Signal 
Corps. 

II.  Memoir  on  the  use  of  Homing  Pigeons  for  Military   Purposes. — W.  E.  Birk- 
himer,  ist  Lieutenant,  3d  Artillery. 

III.  To  Foretell  Frost. — James  Allen,  ist  Lieutenant,  3d  Cavalry. 

IV.  The  use  of  the  Spectroscope  in  Meteorological  Observations. — Prof.  Winslow 
Upton. 

V.  Work   of   the    Signal    Service  in  the  Arctic  Regions.* — Mr.    W.    M.    Beebe, 
J.  S.  Powell,  2d  Lieutenant,  Signal  Corps,  P.  Henry  Ray,  ist  Lieutenant,  8th  Infantry. 

VI.  Report  on  Wind  Velocities  at  the  Lake  Crib  and  at  Chicago.— Prof.  H.  A. 
Hazen. 

VII.  Variation  of  Rainfall  West  of  the  Mississippi  River.— Prof.  H.  A.  Hazen. 

VIII.  The  Study  of  Meteorology  in  the  Higher  Schools  of  Germany,  Switzerland, 
and  Austria. — Prof.  Frank  Waldo. 

'"Editions  exhausted. 


LIST   OF  PUBLICATIONS. 

IX.  Weather  Proverbs. — H.  H.  C.  Dunwoody,  ist  Lieutenant,  4th  Artillery. 

X.  Report   on   the   Lady    Franklin    Bay  Expedition   of   1883. — E.    A.  Garlington, 
ist  Lieutenant,  7th  Cavalry. 

XI.  The  Elements  of  the   Heliograph. — F.  K.  Ward,  ist  Lieutenant,  ist  Cavalry. 

XII.  The  Special  Characteristics  of  Tornadoes. — John  P.    Finley,  2d  Lieutenant, 
Signal  Corps. 

XVI.   The    Effect  of  Wind  Currents  on   Rainfall G.  E.  Curtis,  Sergeant,  Signal 

Corps. 

MISCELLANEOUS  (octavo). 

Official,  Danger,   Distress,  and  Storm   Signal  Code,  for   Signal  Service  Sea-Coast 
Stations  and  Mariners. 


TO  BE  ISSUED  SOON. 

PROFESSIONAL  PAPERS  (quarto). 

XIV.  Charts  of  Relative  Storm   Frequency  for  a   Portion  of  the   Northern   Hemi- 
sphere.— J.  P.  Finley,  2d  Lieutenant,  Signal  Corps. 

XV.  Researches  on  Solar  Heat  and  its  Absorption  by  the  Earth's  Atmosphere. — 
Prof.   S.  P.  Langley. 

SIGNAL  SERVICE  NOTES  (octavo). 

XIII.  The  Relation  between  Magnetic  Storms  and  Northers  at  Havana,  Cuba. — 
G.  E.  Curtis,  Sergeant,  Signal  Corps. 

XIV.  Physical  Observations  on  board  the  Lady  Franklin  Bay  Expedition  of  1883. 
— W.  H.  Lamar,  Jr.,  and  F.  W.  Ellis,  Sergeants,  Signal  Corps. 

XV.  River  Floods  and  Danger  Lines  of  1882 Prof.  H.  A.  Hazen. 

XVII.  A  First  Report  upon  Observations  of  Atmospheric  Electricity  at  Baltimore, 
Maryland. — Park  Morrill,  Private,  Signal  Corps. 

MISCELLANEOUS  (large  quarto). 
How  to  Use  Weather  Maps. 


CATALOGUE  OF  SIGNAL  SERVICE  INSTRUMENTS. 


Khi'l  of  instrument,  etc. 


Maker. 


Achromatic  triplet .  ..Toll. 

Actinometer Stewart. 

Actinometer   Violle. 

Air-meter Casella. 

Air-meter Birams. 

Aeliograph Clum, 

Air  pump  

Altazimuth     instru- 
ment      

Anemoscope,      self- 
recording  Beck. 

Anemoscope,       self- 
recording  Eccarcl. 

Anemoscope,       self- 
recording  Wild. 

Anemometer Hahl. 

Anemometer Hageman. 

Anemometer,      self- 
recording  Hipps. 

Anemometer,      self- 
recording  Wild. 

Anemometer Lind, 

Anemometer,      self- 
recording  Eccard. 

Balance Beck. 

Barometer,        self-re- 
cording, electric.. ..Eccard. 

Barometer,        self-re- 
cording, electric  —  Foreman. 

Barometer,     marine, 

electric Hahl. 

Barometer,     Gibbons, 

self-recording Hahl. 

Barometer,       Hough, 

self-recording Fasaldt. 

Barometer,    mechani- 
cal  Peeler. 

Barometer,  balance... Wild. 

Barometer,      photo- 
graphic  Beck. 

Barometer,    transmit- 
ter,  self-recording.  Eccard. 

Barometer,    aneroid, 

self-recording Hipp. 


Kind  of  instrument,  etc.  Maker. 

Barometer,      aneroid, 

self-recording Beck. 

Barometer,      aneroid, 

self-recording Hottinger  &  Co. 

Barometer,  standard. .  Green. 

Barometer,    sub-stan- 
dard   Aidie. 

Barometer,    sub-stan- 
dard, control  Fuss. 

Barometer,    sub-stan- 
dard  Casella. 

Barometer,  mountain. various  makers. 

Barometer,  marine.. ..various  makers. 

Barometer,  aneroid. ..various  makers. 
'Cathetometer Casella. 

Chronometer Negus. 

Chronograph Hipp. 

Compass various  makers. 

Compass,  prismatic. ..various  makers. 

Compass,  surveyor's  .various  makers. 

Comparator  thermom- 
eter  Professor  Russell. 

Comparator  thermom- 
eter  Yale  College. 

Condenser,  electric  ... 

Dynameter , 

Electrometer Tompson. 

Electrometer Siemen. 

Electroscope various  makers. 

Glasses,  eye 

Glasses,  marine various. 

Grating,  diffraction. ..Lockyer. 

Gauges,  rain various. 

Gauges,  river various. 

Gauges,  snow..  various. 

Galvanometer,  reflect- 
ing  Tompson. 

Galvanometer,SiemenSiemen. 

Galvanometer,  Sine...W.  U.  Tel.  Co. 

Heliometer Becker. 

Heliostat various. 

Heliograph various. 

Hydrometer various. 

Hygrodeik Low. 


CATALOGUE    OF   SIGNAL   SERVICE   INSTRUMENTS. 


Kind  ufiiiHtrumont,  etc.  Maker. 

Hygrodeik Dunwoody. 

Hygrometer Schwackoffer. 

Hygrometer Edelman. 

Hygrometer Dyne. 

Hygrometer Koppe. 

Hygrometer Mason. 

Hygrometer Sausures. 

Hygrometer Regnault. 

Hygrometer Alluard. 

Hygrometer,     self-re- 
cording  Wild. 

Hygrometer,     self-re- 
cording   Hough. 

Indicator,  wind various. 

Indicator,  cautionary. various. 
Knapsack,  wrecking.. 

Levels various. 

Marine    lanterns 

Mortar,  gun-cotton.... 

Mortar,'signal 

Nephelescope Green. 

Ozonometer 

Odometer 

Pistols,  signal 

Pyrometer Casella. 

Pneumatometer  Edelmann. 

Pedometer 

Rod,  telescopic,  anem- 
ometer  

Rod,  telescopic 

Sextant 

Shelter,      instrument, 

window 

Shelter,      instrument, 

roof 

Signal  lanterns 

Spectroscope,  large. ..Lockyer. 
Spectroscope,     small, 

rainband Lockyer. 

Signal  kit,  containing : 
Canteen  and  strap 
Canvas  case  and 

strap  

Foot  torch  extin- 
guisher   

Flying    torch    ex- 
tinguisher  

Flag,  4-feet,  white 
Flag,  4-feet,  red... 
Flame  shade,  foot 

torch  

Flame  shade,  fly- 
ing torch 


Kind  of  instrument,  etc.  Maker. 

Signal  kit,  containing: 

Funnel 

Haversack 

Pliers 

Scissors  

Staffs,  jointed  .... 

Straps 

Foot  torch 

Flying  torch 

Wormer,  torch 

Special  apparatus  : 
Barometer  testing 

apparatus Hahl. 

Boiling  point  ap- 
paratus   Fernet. 

Boiling  point  ap- 
paratus   Negretti  &  Zambra. 

Calibrating  appa- 
ratus  Pernet. 

Distilling  appara- 
tus, mercury.  ...Professor  Wright. 
Freezing  point  ap- 
paratus   Pernet. 

Fog       measuring 

apparatus Schwackoffer. 

Pendulum  appar- 
atus   Kater. 

Telescope 

Thermometer;  air Jolly. 

Thermometer,  normalTounelot. 
Thermometer,  normal  Baudin. 
Thermometer,  normalGreen. 
Thermometer,          ex- 
posed  various. 

Thermometer,  maxi- 
mum  various. 

Thermometer,  mini- 
mum  various. 

Thermometer          and 

case,  water  various. 

Thermometer,  radia- 
tion   various. 

Thermometer          and 

frame,  deep  sea Negretti  &  Zambra. 

Thermometer,  self-re- 
cording  Hipp. 

Thermometer,  self-re- 
cording   Hough, 

Thermometer,  self-re- 
cording   Wild. 

Thermometer,  self-re- 
cording, photo- 
graphic   Beck. 


CATALOGUE   OF   SIGNAL   SERVICE   INSTRUMENTS. 


Kind  of  instrument,  etc. 
Thermometer,         me- 
tallic    

Telegraph  instru- 
ments : 

Annunciator,  tele- 
graph  

Arrester,    light- 
ning   

Arrester,    light- 
ning, cable  

Apparatus    for 

electric   light... 

Boards,  switch  — 

Box,magnetic,  call 

Button,    push 

Keys,  telegraph... 
Field  telegraph 

machine  

Siemen  knapsack 
Siemen  transport 

case  

Siemen      cable 

drum  

Magneto  -  electric 

machine  

Resistance   coil... 

Relay 

Relay,  pocket 

Repeater 

Sabine  discharger 
Switch,  telegraph 
Switch,  telephone 

Sounder 

Sounder,  box 

Shunts,galvanom- 

eter 

Telephone  

Transmitter 

Wheatstone 

bridge  

Batteries  : 

Callaud  ...'. 

Eagle,  round 

Eagle,  square 


Maker. 


Kind  of  instrument,  etc. 
Batteries  : 

Daniells  

Le  Clanche 

Gravity 

Telegraph  tools  : 

Apparatus,       sol- 
dering   

Bars,    crow 

Bags,  tool 

Belt  for  climber... 
Block  and  tackle, 

set 

Boots,  iron 

Boxes,  canvas 

Boxes,  cable 

Clamps,  splicing. 
Climbers  and 

straps 

Drivers,  plug 

Furnace,     solder- 
ing  

Gauges,  wire 

Iron,   soldering... 

Battery  knife  

Pikes 

Plates,  ground 

Pliers,  cutting  — 

Pulleys 

Pulleys  and  tackle 

with  vises 

Reels,  wire 

Reels,  cable 

Shovel,  long  han- 
dle  

Shovel,  spoon  — 
Shovel,  digging... 
Scrapers,  battery . 
Syringe,  battery... 

Tools,  soldering 

Vises,  hand  

Wrench,  splicing  

Wrench,  monkey 

Weather  case... 


Maker. 


LIST  OF  SIGNAL  SERVICE  STATIONS  IN  OPERATION  JUNE  30, 1884. 


STATIONS    OF    THE    FIRST   ORDER. 

Making  a  continuous  record  by  means  of  self-registering  instruments, 
Washington,  D.  C.  § 

STATIONS    OF    THE    SECOND    ORDER. 

Taking  six    observations  daily,   reporting  three  times  a    day    by  telegraph,  and   monthly 

by  mail, 

Bismarck,  Dak.  t  Boston,  Mass.  t*§ 

Buffalo,  N.  Y.t*§  -M.  Chicago,  Ills.  t*§  •«- 

Cincinnati,  Ohio,  t  §  ++  Kitty  Hawk,  N.  C.  * 

New  York  City,  t*  §  Philadelphia,  Pa.  § 

Pittsburg,  Pa.  J  §  Prescott,  Ariz. 

Saint  Louis,  Mo.  \  §•»-»•  San  Francisco,  Cal.  t  § 

STATIONS    OF    THE    SECOND   ORDER. 

Taking  jive  observations  daily,  reporting   three  times  a  day   by  telegraph,  and  monthly 

by  mail, 

Albany,  N.  Y.  §  ++  Alpena,  Mich,  t* 

Atlanta,  Ga.  ||  Atlantic  City,  N.  J.  t* 

Augusta,  Ga.  I  \  \\  Baltimore,  Md.  t  *. 

Barnegat  City,  N.  J.  *  Block  Island,  R.  1. 1* 

Cairo,  111.  J  Cape  Henry,  Va.  * 

Cedar  Keys,  Fla.  t*  II  Charleston,  S.  C.  t*  || 

Charlotte,  N.  C.  ||  Chattanooga,  Tenn.  \  ++ 

Cheyenne,  Wyo.  Chincoteague,  Va.  t* 

Cleveland,  Ohio,  t*  Columbus,  Ohio. 

Concho,  Fort,  Tex.  Custer,  Fort,  Mont. 

Davenport,  Iowa.  \  Deadwood,  Dak. 

Delaware  Breakwater,  Del.  t*  Denver,  Colo. 

Des  Moines,  Iowa.  §  Detroit,  Mich  t  *  § 

Dodge  City,  Kans.  Eastport,  Me.  t* 

El  Paso,  Tex.  Erie,  Pa.  * 

Escanaba,  Mich,  t*  Fort  Smith,  Ark.  J  || 

Galveston,  Tex.  t*||  Grand  Haven,  Mich,  t* 

Hatteras,  N.  C.  *  Huron,  Dak. 

Indianapolis,  Ind.  Indianola,  Tex.  t* 

Jacksonville,  Fla.  t*  Keokuk,  Iowa.  \ 

Key  West,  Fla.  t*  Knoxville,  Tenn.  \ 

La  Crosse,  Wis.  \  Leavenworth,  Kan.  \  § 

Little  Rock,  Ark.  \  ||  ++  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

Louisville,  Ky.  \  -M.  Lynchburg,  Va. 

Mackinaw  City,  Mich,  t*  Macon,  Fort,  N.  C.  * 

Marquette,  Mich,  t*  Memphis,  Tenn.  \  || 

Milwaukee,  Wis.t*  Mobile,  Ala.  t* II 

Montgomery,  A}a.  ||  Moorhead,  Minn. 
3 


34  LIST   OF   SIGNAL   SERVICE   STATIONS. 

Mount  Washington,  N.  H.  Nashville,  Tenn.  }  §  ||  -M- 

New  Haven,  Conn,  t  *  New  Orleans,  La.  f  *  || 

Norfolk,  Va.t*  North  Platte,  Nebr. 

Olympia,  Wash.  T.  Omaha,  Nebr.  t 

Oswego,  N.  Y.  *  Palestine,  Tex.  || 

Pensacola,   Fla.  t*  Port   Huron,  Mich.  * 

Portland,  Me.  t*  Portland,  Oreg.  Jt 

Red  Bluff,  Cal.  J  Rio  Grande  City,  Tex. 

Rochester,  N.  Y.  Roseburg,  Oreg. 

Sacramento,  Cal.  J  Saint  Paul,  Minn,  t 

Saint  Vincent,  Minn.  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 

San  Diego,  Cal.  Sandusky,  Ohio,  t* 

Sandy  Hook,  N.  J.f*  Sanford,  Fla. 

Savannah,  Ga.t*||  Shreveport,  La.  }  || 

Smithville,  N.  C.f*  Springfield,  111. 

Toledo,  Ohio.t*  Vicksburg,  Miss.  J  || 

West  Las  Animas,  Colo.  Wilmington,  N.  C.  t*li 

Yankton,  Dak.  J  Yuma,  Ariz.  } 

Taking  five  observations  daily,  making  report  once  a  day  by  telegraph,  and  full  reports 

monthly  by  mail. 

Dubuque,  Iowa.  J 

Taking  five  observations  daily  and  reporting  monthly  by  mail. 

Boise  City,  Idaho.  Chimo,  Fort,  (Ungava  Bay,)  Labrador. 

Lady  Franklin  Bay,  Grinnell  Land.  Myer,  Fort,  Va.t 

New  London,  Conn,  t*  Pike's  Peak,  Col. 
Sitka,  Alaska. 

Taking  three  observations  daily,   reporting  three  times  a  day  by  telegraph,  and  monthly 

by  mail. 

Apache,  Fort,  Ariz.  Assinaboine,  Fort,  Mont. 

Bennett,  Fort,  Dak.  Benton,  Fort,  Mont.  J 

Brownsville,  Tex.  Buford,  Fort,  Dak. 

Canby,  Fort,  Wash.  T.  t  Cape  Mendocino,  Cal. 

Duluth,  Minn,  t*  Elliott,  Fort,  Tex. 

Helena,  Mont.  Lewiston,  Idaho. 

Maginnis,  Fort,  Mont.  Poplar  River,  Mont. 

Shaw,  Fort,  Mont.  Sill,  Fort,  Ind.  T. 

Spokane  Falls,  Wash.  T.  Stockton,  Fort,  Tex. 

Tatoosh  Island,  Wash.  T.  Totten,  Fort,  Dak. 

Taking  three  observations  daily  and  reporting  monthly  by  mail. 
Alexander,  Fort,  Alaska.  Behring's  Island,  Behring  Sea. 

Cape  May,  N.  J.*  Davis,  Fort,  Tex. 

Dayton,  Wash.  T.  Grant,  Fort,  Ariz. 

Saint  Michael's,  Fort,  Alaska.  Unalashka,  Alaska. 

Thomas,  Camp,  Ariz. 

STATIONS    OF   THE   THIRD  ORDER. 

Taking  two  observations  daily  (at  3  /.  m.  and  n  p.  m.,  Washington  time),  and  reporting 

monthly  by  mail. 

Anvik,  Alaska.  Atka,  Alaska. 

Chilkaht,  Alaska.  Cordova  Bay,  Alaska. 

Hoochnahoo,  Alaska.  Hoonyah,  Alaska. 


LIST   OF   SIGNAL   SERVICE   STATIONS. 


35 


Kenai,  Alaska. 
Petropaulovski,  Kamtchatka. 
Tananah,  Alaska. 
Wrangell,  Fort,  Alaska. 

Taking  one  observation  daily  (at  the 
Apache  Pass,  Ariz. 
Astoria,  Oreg. 
Bridger,  Fort,  Wyo. 
Cosur  d'Alene,  Fort,  Idaho. 
Uurango,  Colo. 
Golovin  Bay,  Alaska. 
Henrietta,  Tex. 
Klamath,  Fort,  Oreg. 
Linkville,  Oreg. 
Marfa,  Tex. 
McDowell,  Fort,  Ariz. 
Mission,  Alaska. 
Narragansett  Pier,  R.  I. 
New  River  Inlet,  N.  C. 
Nulato,  Alaska. 
Phoenix,  Ariz. 
Port  Angeles,  Wash.  T. 
Reliance,  Fort,  Alaska. 
Saint  George's  Island,  Alaska. 
San  Carlos  Agency,  Ariz. 
Sisseton,  Fort,  Uak. 
Spokane,  Fort,  Wash.  T. 
Sully,  Fort,  Dak. 
Thatcher's  Island,  Mass.* 
Ugashik,  Alaska. 
Wash  Woods,  N.  C. 
Webster,  Dak. 


Koskokvim,  Alaska. 
Port  Etches,  Alaska. 
Tcha-tow-klin,  Alaska. 
Yakutat  Bay,  Alaska. 

hour  of  sunset}^  and  reporting  monthly  by  mail.. 
Ashland,  Oreg. 
Bidwell,  Fort,  Cal. 
Cantonment,  Ind.  T . 
Craig,  Fort,  N.  Mex. 
Florida  Station,  N,  Mex. 
Harrisburg  (or  Juneau  City),  Alaska. 
Lakeview,  Oreg. 
Little  Egg  Harbor,  N.  J.* 
Maricopa,  Ariz. 
Meade,  P'ort,  Dak. 
Montrose,  Colo. 
Neah  Bay,  Wash.  T. 
Nuduckayet,  Alaska. 
Ocean  City,  Md. 
Point  Judith,  R.  I.* 
Pysht,  Wash.  T. 
Reno,  Fort,  Ind.  T. 
San  Marcial,  N.  ,Mex. 
Scott's  Hill,  N.  C. 
Stanton,  Fort,  N.  Mex. 
Supply,  Fort,  Ind.  T. 
Thornburg,  Fort,  Utah. 
Verde,  Fort,  Ariz. 
Watrous,  N.  Mex. 
Willcox,  Ariz. 
Wickenburg,  Ariz. 
Yates,  Fort,  Dak. 


REPAIR    STATIONS. 

Stations  on  the   United  States  military  telegraph  lines  at  which  no  observations  are  taken. 
Ash  Fork,  Ariz.  Crescent  Bay,  Wash.  T. 

Carter,  Wyo.  Hoko,  Wash.  T. 

Glendive,  Mont.  Terry's  Landing,  Mont. 

Larimore,  Dak. 


Bangor,  Me. 
Logansport,  Ind. 


SPECIAL    PRINTING   STATIONS. 

Burlington,  Iowa. 


Ahnapee,  Wis. 

Bass  River  Light,  Mass. 

Bay  City,  Mich. 

Bristol,  R.  I. 

Cape  Vincent,  N.  Y. 

Charlotte,  N.  Y. 

Corpus  Christi,  Tex. 

East  Tawas,  Mich. 

Fall  River,  Mass. 


DISPLAY    STATIONS. 

Ashtabula,  Ohio. 
Bath,  Me. 
Boothbay,  Me. 
Brunswick,  Ga. 
Charlevoix,  Mich. 
City  Island,  N.  Y. 
Dunkirk,  N.  Y. 
Elk  Rapids,  Mich. 
Fort  George  Island,  Fla. 


36  LIST  OF  SIGNAL   SERVICE   STATIONS. 

Fire  Island,  N.  Y.  Gloucester,  Mass. 

Frankfort,  Mich.  Highland  Light,  Mass 

Green  Bay,  Wis.  Kenosha,  Wis. 

Hyannis,  Mass.  Ludington,  Mich. 

Kewaunee,  Wis.  Manistee,  Mich. 

Mackinac,  Fort,  Mich.  Marblehead,  Mass. 

Manitowoc,  Wis.  Monroe,  Fort,  Va. 

Menominee,  Mich.  Morgan,  P^ort,  Ala. 

Montague,  Mich.  New  Bedford,  Mass. 

Muskegon,  Mich.  New  Haven  Light,  Conn. 

Newburyport,  Mass.  North  Fair  Haven,  N.  Y. 

Newport,  R.  I.  Pentwater,  Mich. 

Northport,  Mich.  Port  Royal,  S.  C. 

Petoskey,  Mich.  Provincetown,  Mass. 

Poitsmouth,  N.  H.  Rockland,  Me. 

Racine,  Wis.  Saint  Ignace,  Mich. 

Saint  Augustine,  Fla.  Sand  Beach,  Mich. 

Saint  Joseph,  Mich.  Sheboygan,  Wis. 

Sand  Key  Light,  Fla.  Southwest   Harbor,  Me. 

Southeast  Light,  Block  Island,  R.  I.  Sturgeon  Bay,  Wis. 

South  Haven,  Mich.  Traverse  City,  Mich. 

Stonington,  Conn.  Wood's  Holl,  Mass. 
Tybee  Island,  Ga. 

SPECIAL    RIVER    STATIONS. 

Observations  of  the  stage  of  water  in  the  river  are  taken  at  2  p.  m.  (  Washington  time})  daily 

Albany,  Oreg.  Boonville,  Mo. 

Brownsville,  Pa.  Brunswick,  Mo. 

Charleston,  Tenn.  Clinton,  Tenn. 

Colusa,  Cal.  Confluence,  Pa. 

Uecatur,  Ala.  Eugene  City,  Oreg. 

Evansville,  Ind.  Folsom  City,  Cal. 

Freeport,  Pa.  Jefferson  City,  Mo. 

Hermann,  Mo.  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

Johnsonville,  Tenn.  Leadvale,  Tenn. 

Kingston,  Tenn.  Lexington,  Mo. 

Le  Claire,  Iowa.  Loudon,  Tenn. 

Mahoning,  Pa.  Marietta,  Ohio. 

Marysville,  Cal.  Muscatine,  Iowa. 

Mount  Carmel,  111.  Oil  City,  Pa. 

New  Geneva,  Pa.  Paducah,  Ky. 

Oroville,  Cal.  Rockwood,  Tenn. 

Peoria,  111.  Saltsburg,  Pa. 

Plattsmouth,  Nebr.  Umatilla,  Oreg. 

Saint  Joseph,  Mo.  Wheeling,  W.  Va. 

Strawberry  Plains,  Tenn.  Warsaw,  111. 

SPECIAL  COTTON-REGION  STATIONS  AND  CENTRES. 

One  observation  made  daily  at  5  /.  m.  {central  time}. 

Wilmington,  North  Carolina  (centre). 

Florence,  S.  C.  Goldsborough,  N.  C. 

Lumberton,  N.  C.  New  Berne,  N.  C. 

Raleigh.  N.  C.  Salisbury,  N.  C. 

Wadesborough,  N.  C.  Weldon,  N.  C. 
Cheraw,  S.  C. 


LIST   OF   SIGNAL  SERVICE  STATIONS. 


37 


Charleston,  South  Carolina  (centre). 


Branchville,  S.  C. 
Jacksonborough,  S.  C. 
Saint  George's,  S.  C. 
Yemassee,  S.  C. 

Allendale,  S.  C. 
Batesburg,  S.  C. 
Camak,  Ga. 
Columbia,  S.  C. 
Union  Point,  Ga. 
Waynesborough,  Ga. 

Albany,  Ga. 
Bainbridge,  Ga. 
Eastman,  Ga. 
Fort  Gaines,  Ga. 
Live  Oak,  Fla. 
Quitman,  Ga. 
Thomasville,  Ga. 

Anderson,  S.  C. 
Columbus,  Ga, 
Gainesville,  Ga. 
Griffin,  Ga. 
Newnan,  Ga. 
Toccoa,  Ga. 

Birmingham,  Ala. 
Eufaula,  Ala. 
Greenville,  Ala. 
Opelika,  Ala. 
Selma,  Ala. 

Mobile,  Alabama  (centre). 

Aberdeen,  Miss.  Columbus,  Miss. 

Evergreen,  Ala.  Livingston,  Ala. 

Macon,  Miss.  Meridian,  Miss. 

Okolona,  Miss.  Waynesborough,  Miss. 

New  Orleans,  Louisiana  (centre). 

Alexandria,  La*.  Amit£  City,  La. 

Brookhaven,  Miss.  Cheneyville,  La. 

Coushatta  Chute,  La.  Hazelhurst,  Miss. 

Lafayette,  La.  Minden,  La. 

Natchez,  Miss.  Natchitoches,  La. 

Opelousas,  La.  Whiteville,  La. 

Galveston,  Texas  (centre). 

Austin,  Tex.  Beaumont,  Tex. 

Belton,  Tex.  Columbia,  Tex. 

Corsicana,  Tex.  Cuero,  Tex. 

Dallas,  Tex.  Hearne,  Tex. 

Hempstead,  Tex.  Houston,  Tex. 


Hardeeville,  S.  C. 
Kingstree,  S.  C. 
Saint  Matthew's. 

Augusta,  Georgia  (centre). 

Athens,  Ga. 
Blackville,  S.  C. 
Chester,  S.  C. 
Greenwood,  S.  C. 
Washington,  Ga. 

Savannah,  Georgia  (centre). 

Allapaha,  Ga. 
Fernandina,  Fla 
Jessup,  Ga. 
Milieu,  Ga. 
Smithville,  Ga. 
Waldo,  Fla. 
Way  Cross,  Ga. 

Atlanta,  Georgia  (centre). 

Cartersville,  Ga. 
Dalton,  Ga. 
Greenville,  S.  C. 
Macon,  Ga. 
Spartanburg,  S.  C 
West  Point,  Ga. 

Montgomery,  Alabama  (centre). 
Calera,  Ala. 
Fort  Deposit,  Ala. 
Marion,  Ala. 
Pine  Apple,  Ala. 


38                               LIST   OF  SIGNAL   SERVICE   STATIONS. 

I 

Huntsville,  Tex.  Longview,  Tex. 

Luling,  Tex.  Orange,  Tex. 

Sour  Lake,  Tex.  San  Antonio,  Tex. 

Waco,  Tex.  Tyler,  Tex. 

Weimar,  Tex.  Weatherford,  Tex. 

Vicksburg,  Mississippi  (centre). 

Edwards,  Miss.  Jackson,  Miss. 

Lake,  Miss.  Monroe,  La.J 

Little  Rock,  Arkansas  (centre). 

Arkansas  City,  Ark.  Brinkley,  Ark. 

Devall's  Bluff,  Ark.  Kensett,  Ark. 

Helena,  Ark.J  Magnolia,  Ark. 

Madison,  Ark.  Monticello,  Ark. 

Malvern,  Ark.  Paris,  Tex. 

Newport,  Ark.  Prescott,  Ark. 

Pine  Bluff,  Ark.  Texarkana,  Ark. 

Russellville,  Ark. 

Memphis,  Tennessee  (centre). 

Batesville,  Miss.  Corinth,  Miss. 

Bolivar,  Tenn.  Decatur,  Ala. 

Brownsville,  Tenn.  Grand  Junction,  Tenn. 

Covington,  Tenn.  Hernando,  Miss. 

Dyersburg,  Tenn.  Milan,  Tenn. 

Grenada,  Miss.  Oxford,  Miss. 

Holly  Springs,  Miss.  Scottsborough,  Ala. 

Paris,  Tenn.  Withe,  Tenn. 

Tuscumbia,  Ala. 
*  Displays  cautionary  signals. 

t  Takes  observations  of  temperature  of  the  water  in  river  or   harbor   at  2  p.  m 
(Washington  time),  daily. 

J  Takes  observations  of  the  stage   of  water  in  the   river   at  2  p.  m.  (Washington 
time),  daily. 

§  Prints  Farmers'  Bulletin. 

|| Takes  cotton-region  observations  at  5  p.  m.  (central  time),  daily. 
IT  Fort  Myer,  Va.,  is  maintained  as   a  ist  class  station  whenever  a  class  is  under 
instruction  ;  at  other  times  as  a  3d  class  station. 
•*-*  Displays  cold-wave  signal. 

RECAPITULATION. 

• 

Stations   taking  six    (6)  observations  daily,  reporting  three  times  a  day  by 

telegraph  and  monthly  by  mail 13 

Stations  taking  five  (5)   observations  daily,  reporting  three  times  a  day  by 

telegraph  and  monthly  by  mail 92 

Stations  taking  five  (5)  observations  daily,  making  report  once  a  day  by  tele- 
graph and  monthly  by  mail I 

Stations  taking  five  (5)  observations  daily  and  reporting  monthly  by  mail 7 

Stations   taking  three  (3)   observations  daily,  reporting  three  times  a  day  by 

telegraph,  and  monthly  by   mail 20 

Stations  taking  three   (3)  observations   daily  and  reporting  monthly  by  mail  9 

Stations  at  which  two  (2)  observations   are  taken  daily 14 

Stations  at  which  one  (i)  observation  is  taken  daily 54 


LIST   OF  SIGNAL   SERVICE   STATIONS.  39 

Special  printing  stations 3 

Display  stations 64 

Special  river  stations 42 

Special  cotton-region  stations 138 

Stations  of  observation  at  which  the  stage  of  water  in  the  river  is  observed 

daily  29 

Stations  of  observation  at  which  the  temperature  of  the  water  in  the  river  or 

harbor  is  observed  daily 41 

Stations  of  observation  at  which  cotton-region  observations  are  taken  daily 

at  5  p.  m 18 

Stations  of  observation  which  display  the  cautionary  signal...  50 

Stations  of  observation  which  display  the  cold-wave  signal  10 

Stations  of  observation  at  which  the  "Farmers'  Bulletin"  is  printed 15 

Repair  stations  on  the  United  States  military  telegraph  lines,  at  which  no 

observations   are  taken 7 

Total  number  of  stations 464 

Total  number  of  stations  at  which  cotton-region  observations  are  taken  156 

Total  number  of  stations  displaying  cautionary  signals 114 

Total  number  of  river   stations 71 

Total  number  of  printing  stations 18 


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